Cyprus

Not to be confused with Cypress.

Republic of Cyprus Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία (Greek) Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)
Flag Coat of arms of Cyprus Coat of arms
Anthem: Ὕμνος εἰς τὴν Ἐλευθερίαν Ymnos is tin Eleftherian Hymn to Liberty1
Location of Cyprus (dark green) – in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in the European Union (light green)
Capital and largest city	Nicosia (Lefkosia, Lefkoşa)
Official languages	Greek, Turkish
Demonym(s)	Cypriot
Government	Presidential republic
• President	Dimitris Christofias
Independence  from the United Kingdom
• Date	16 August 1960
Area
• Total	9,251 km2 (3,572 sq mi) (167th)
• Water (%)	negligible
Population
• 2007 census	788,457
• Density	85/km2 (220.1/sq mi) (85th)
GDP (PPP)	2007 estimate
• Total	$24.497 billion (110th)
• Per capita	$31,522 (26th)
GDP (nominal)	2008 IMF estimate
• Total	$22.119 billion (90th)
• Per capita	$28,209 (28th)
HDI (2007)	0.903  (28th)
Currency	Euro (€)2 (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Calling code	357
ISO 3166 code	CY
Internet TLD	.cy3
Also the national anthem of Greece. Prior to 2008: Cypriot pound The .eu domain is also used, shared with other European Union member states.

Cyprus (Template:Lang-el; Template:Lang-tr), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Template:Lang-el; Template:Lang-tr) is an island country situated in the eastern Mediterranean south of Turkey, west of the Levant, north of Egypt, and east-southeast of Greece.

Cyprus is the third-largest island and one of the most popular tourist destinations in the Mediterranean, attracting over 2.4 million tourists per year. A former British colony, it gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960 and became a Commonwealth republic in 1961. The Republic of Cyprus is a developed country and has been a member of the European Union since 1 May 2004. It adopted the Euro on the 1st of January 2008.

In 1974, following a period of violence between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots and an attempted Greek Cypriot coup d'état aimed at annexing the island to Greece and sponsored by the Greek military junta of 1967-1974, Turkey invaded and occupied one-third of the island. This led to the displacement of thousands of Cypriots and the establishment of a separate Turkish Cypriot political entity in the north. This event and its resulting political situation is a matter of ongoing dispute.

The Republic of Cyprus, the internationally recognized state, has de jure sovereignty over 97% of the island of Cyprus and all surrounding waters, and the United Kingdom controls the remaining three percent. The island is de facto partitioned into four main parts:

• the area under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus in the south of the island;
• the Turkish occupied area in the north, calling itself the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (recognized only by Turkey);
• the United Nations-controlled Green Line, separating the two; and
• two Sovereign Base Areas (Akrotiri and Dhekelia), over which the United Kingdom retained jurisdiction after Cypriot independence.

Etymology

The name Cyprus has a somewhat uncertain etymology. One suggestion is that it comes from the Greek word for the Mediterranean cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens), κυπάρισσος (kypárissos), or even from the Greek name of the henna plant (Lawsonia alba), κύπρος (kýpros). Another school suggests that it stems from the Eteocypriot word for copper. Georges Dossin, for example, suggests that it has roots in the Sumerian word for copper (zubar) or for bronze (kubar), due to the large deposits of copper ore found on the island. Through overseas trade the island has given its name to the Classical Latin word for the metal through the phrase aes Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum. Cyprus is also called "the island of Aphrodite" , since the Greek goddess Aphrodite, of beauty and love, was born in Cyprus. The most common theory is that it came from their word for copper, Kypros, because the island had rich deposits of copper.

History

Main article: History of Cyprus

Prehistoric and ancient Cyprus

Main articles: Cyprus (Prehistory) and Ancient history of Cyprus

File:Ieron apollonos lemesos.jpg

Temple to Apollon Ilatis outside the city of Limassol.

A number of discoveries during the past twenty years have greatly enhanced our knowledge of the early prehistory of Cyprus. The earliest confirmed site of human activity is Aetokremnos, situated on the Akrotiri Peninsula on the south coast, indicating that hunter-gatherers were active on the island from around 10,000 BC. Recent evidence also suggests that there may have been short-lived occupation sites contemporary with Aetokremnos on the west coast of the island, in the area of the Akamas, and on the east coast at Nissi Beach.

At present the archaeological record presents us with a chronological gap in the use or occupation of the island between the earliest hunter-gatherers and the appearance in the record of more settled village communities at around 8200 BC. These people probably practiced a limited form of agriculture and animal husbandry, supplemented by hunting. Important remains from this early-Neolithic period can be found at Mylouthkia, Shillourokambos, Kastros, Tenta and, later toward the end of this period, the famous village of Khirokitia.

During the Painted-Pottery Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods that followed, small scale settlements and activity areas were in use all over the island, and the people of Cyprus produced decorated pottery and figurines of stone quite distinct from the cultures of the surrounding mainland. This has traditionally led some archaeologists to consider the island somewhat isolated and insular during this time, although this idea has recently been challenged.

Ruins of ancient Salamis, near Famagusta.

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Kourion Theatre outside the city of Limassol.

The Bronze Age also brought rich finds, during which the people learned to work the island's rich copper mines. The Mycenæan culture seems to have reached Cyprus at around 1600 BC, and several Greek and Phoenician settlements that belong to the Iron Age can be found on the island. Cyprus came into contact with Egypt about 1500 BC and became an important trade partner.

Around 1200 BC the Sea Peoples may have arrived in Cyprus, although the nature of their influence is disputed. The Phoenicians arrived at the island in the early first millennium BC. In those times Cyprus supplied the Greeks with timber for their fleets.

In the sixth century BC, Amasis of Egypt conquered Cyprus, which soon fell under the rule of the Persians when Cambyses conquered Egypt. In the Persian Empire, Cyprus formed part of the fifth satrapy, and in addition to tribute the island had to supply the Persians with ships and crews. In this fate the Greeks of Cyprus had as companions the Greeks of Ionia (on the west coast of Anatolia), with whom they forged close ties. When the Ionian Greeks revolted against Persia in 499 BC, they were joined by the Cypriots, except for the city of Amathus. The Cypriots were led by Onesilos, who dethroned his brother, the king of Salamis, for not wanting to fight for independence. The Persians reacted quickly, sending a considerable force against Onesilos and eventually putting down the Cypriot rebellion despite Ionian help.

After this defeat, the Greeks mounted various expeditions in attempt to take Cyprus from Persian rule, but all their efforts bore only temporary results. The island eventually regained Greek leadership under Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BC) and, after his death, under his successors: in 318 BC it came under permanent control of the Hellenistic Ptolemies of Egypt; finally, it was annexed by Rome in 58-57 BC. Cyprus was visited by the Christian Apostles Paul of Tarsus and Barnabas, accompanied by St Mark, who came to the island at the outset of their first missionary journey in 45 AD. After their arrival at Salamis they proceeded to Paphos where they converted the Roman Governor Sergius Paulus to Christianity.

Cyprus in ancient myth

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The Centaur floor mosaic in Paphos.

Cyprus is the mythical birthplace of the Greek goddess Aphrodite, of beauty and love, also known as Kypris or the Cyprian. According to Hesiod's Theogony, the goddess emerged fully grown from the sea where the severed genitals of the god Uranus were cast by his son Kronos, causing the sea to foam (Template:Lang-el). Her birth was famously depicted by the artist Botticelli in The Birth of Venus. The legendary site of Aphrodite's birth is at Petra Tou Romiou ("Aphrodite's Rock"), a large sea stack close to the coastal cliffs near Paphos. Throughout ancient history Cyprus was a flourishing centre for the cultic worship of Aphrodite.

Other mythological characters associated with Cyprus are the king Cinyras, Teucer (the founder of Salamis), the Cypriot sculptor Pygmalion, and (in some versions) Adonis.

Post-classical and modern Cyprus

Kolossi Castle.

Cyprus became part of the Byzantine Empire after the partitioning of the Roman Empire in 395, and remained so for almost eight hundred years, interrupted by a period of Muslim Arab domination and influence (643-966).

After the rule of the rebellious Isaac Komnenos, King Richard I of England captured the island in 1191 during the Third Crusade. On May 6, 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Lemesos and took the city. When Isaac arrived to stop the Crusaders he discovered he was too late and retired to Kolossi Castle. Richard called Isaac to negotiations, but Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and started demanding Richard's departure. Richard ordered his cavalry to follow him in a battle against Isaac's army in Tremetusia. Joining Richard's army were the few Roman Catholics of the island along with the island's nobles, who were dissatisfied with Isaac's seven years of tyrannical rule. Richard's army was bigger and better equipped, assuring his victory. Isaac resisted for some time from the castles of Pentadactylos, but finally surrendered after the siege of his castle of Kantara. In a fit of sardonic irony, Richard had Isaac confined with silver chains, scrupulously abiding by a previous promise that he would not place Isaac in irons should he be taken prisoner. Richard became the new ruler of Cyprus, gaining for the Crusade a major supply base that was not under immediate threat from the Saracens, as was Tyre. He and most of his army left Cyprus for the Holy Land early in June. In his absence Cyprus was governed by Richard Camville.

In 1192, the French knight Guy of Lusignan purchased the island, in compensation for the loss of his kingdom, from the Templars. The Republic of Venice took control in February 1489 after the abdication of Queen Caterina Cornaro, the widow of James II, the last Lusignan king of Cyprus.

Dating back to French rule and located in the heart of Nicosia's old town is Hamam Omerye - a true working example of Cyprus' rich culture and diversity, stone struggle, yet sense of freedom and flexibility. The site's history dates back to the 14th century, when it stood as an Augustinian church of St. Mary. Stone-built, with small domes, it is chronologically placed at around the time of Frankish and Venetian rule, approximately the same time that the city acquired its Venetian Walls.

In 1571, Mustapha Pasha converted the church into a mosque, believing that this particular spot is where the second caliph Omer rested during his visit to Lefkosia. Most of the original building was destroyed by Ottoman artillery, although the door of the main entrance still belongs to the 14th century Lusignan building, whilst remains of a later Renaissance phase can be seen at the north-eastern side of the monument. In 2003, the EU funded a bi-communal UNDP/UNOPS project, "Partnership for the Future", in collaboration with Nicosia Municipality and Nicosia Master Plan to restore the building. The Hamam is still in use today and in 2006, received the Europa Nostra prize for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage.

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Kykkos Monastery in Troodos Mountains, District of Nicosia.

Throughout the period of Venetian rule, Ottoman Turks raided and attacked the peoples of Cyprus at will. The Greek population of Cyprus was given weapons by the Venetians and fought the attacking Ottomans. In 1489, the first year of Venetian control, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula. In 1539 the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol. Fearing the ever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia, but most other cities were easy prey.

In the summer of 1570, the Turks attacked again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. A fleet commanded by Piyale Pasha carried about 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery under the command of Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, to the island and landed unopposed near Limassol on July 2, 1570, laying siege to Nicosia. The city fell (September 9, 1570), 20,000 Nicosian Greeks were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Word of the massacre spread, and a few days later Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a heroic defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.

Ottoman rule brought about two dramatic changes in the history of the island. For the first time since the Phoenicians in the ninth century BC, a new population group appeared, the Turks. The Ottoman Empire gave timars (land grants) to soldiers under the condition that they and their families would remain there permanently. This event radically changed the demographics of Cyprus. During the seventeenth century the Turkish population grew rapidly. Most of the Turks who had settled on the island during the three centuries of Ottoman rule remained when control of Cyprus (although not sovereignty; see Cyprus Convention) was ceded to Britain in 1878. Many, however, left for Turkey during the 1920s. By 1970, ethnic Turks represented 18% of the total population of the island, with ethnic Greeks representing the remainder. The distinction between the two groups was by religion and language.

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Troodos mountains: View outside Evrychou in the District of Nicosia

The second important result of the Ottoman conquest benefited the Greek peasants, who no longer remained serfs of the land they were cultivating. Now they could acquire land by purchase, thus becoming land-owners. The Ottomans also applied the millet system to Cyprus, allowing religious authorities to govern their own non-Muslim minorities. This system reinforced the position of the Orthodox Church and the cohesion of the ethnic Greek population. Gradually the Archbishop of Cyprus became not only the religious but the ethnic leader as well. In this way the Church undertook the role of the guardian of Greek cultural legacy, a role the Church continues today, although diminished after independence. The Church itself paid no taxes to the Ottoman conquerors but was responsible for collecting taxes from the population and passing the funds on to the rulers.

The heavy taxes and the abuses against the population on the part of the Ottoman rulers in the early years after the Ottoman conquest gave rise to opposition, following which the Sultan ordered the Governor (the "Kadi") and the Treasurer to govern with justice. While the Sultan's orders indicated his goodwill toward the local population, the local administration proved indifferent, arbitrary and often corrupt, and the local rulers imposed a heavy burden of taxes. Disappointed at the mismanagement by Ottoman governors, Greek Cypriots began looking for outside help. Since their motherland, Greece, was also under Ottoman control, Greek Cypriots turned to Western Europe.

Between 1572 and 1668, around twenty-eight bloody uprisings took place on the island, and in many of these both Greeks and Turkish peasants took part. All ended in failure.

About 1660, in order to eliminate the mismanagement of the Ottoman administration, the Sultan recognised the Archbishop and Bishops as "the protectors of people" and the representatives of the Sultan. In 1670, Cyprus ceased to be a "pasaliki" for the Ottoman Empire and came under the jurisdiction of the Admiral of the Ottoman fleet. The Admiral sent an officer to govern in his place.

In 1703, Cyprus came under the jurisdiction of the Grand Vizier (Anthony Petane), who sent to the island a military and civil administrator. The title and function of this officer were awarded to the person who could raise the highest revenues (see Tax farming). As a result even heavier taxation was imposed. About 1760 the situation in Cyprus was intolerable. A terrible epidemic of plague, bad crops and earthquakes drove many Cypriots to emigrate. Even worse for the Greeks and Turks of the island, the newly-appointed Pasha doubled taxes in 1764. In the end, Chil Osman and 18 of his friends were killed by Greek and Turkish Cypriots, but the two ethnic elements had to pay a large sum of money to the Sultan and the families of the victims. The latter did not accept this judgment and broke into an open rebellion, having Khalil Agha, the commander of the guard of the castle of Kyrenia, as their leader. Finally the uprising was crushed and Khalil Agha was beheaded.

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Paphos Castle.

Detailed population statistics from Cyprus are available going back to the 1830s. The first large scale census of the Ottoman Empire in 1831 included Cyprus. Only men were counted, and information on religion was recorded. The male population at the time was 14,983 Muslims and 29,190 Christians. This implies a total population of 88,000 for the island.

By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000 comprising 44,000 Muslims (mostly Turks) and 100,000 Christians (mostly Greeks).

Cyprus was placed under British administration on 4 June 1878 as a result of the Cyprus Convention, which granted control of the island to Britain in return for British support of the Ottoman Empire in the Russian-Turkish War.

Famagusta harbour was completed in June 1906, by which time the island was a strategic naval outpost for the British Empire, shoring up influence over the Eastern Mediterranean and Suez Canal, the crucial main route to India.

On November 2, 1914, Cyprus was formally annexed by the United Kingdom after the Ottoman Empire entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. Many Cypriots, now British subjects, signed up to fight in the British Army, promised by the British that when the war finished Cyprus would be united with Greece. (This happened in both the First and in the Second World War.) In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey relinquished any claim to Cyprus. In 1925 Cyprus was declared a Crown colony.

The possibility of the island's return to the Ottoman Empire, from which the British had leased it in 1878, kept local Greek nationalist feelings in check. Once the island formally became a British colony, Greek Cypriots gradually became more assertive, ultimately demanding union with Greece. In January 1950 the Cypriot Church organized a referendum regarding union with Greece. The referendum was boycotted by the sizable Greek Cypriot Left and by the Turkish Cypriot community. Among those who participated, a clear majority voted in favor of the island's annexation by Greece. Turkish Cypriots claim that the enosis movement largely ignored the Turkish Cypriots minority presence on the island, but all peoples of Cyprus recognize that the British sought to quell any movement which threatened their military control of the island. (Local autonomy was proposed by the British but was rejected by the Greek Cypriots). In 1955 an armed struggle against British rule erupted with the foundation of EOKA. The organisation's stated goal was the island's incorporation into Greece. The majority of non-leftist Greek Cypriots either took part directly or morally supported the EOKA struggle. By the end of the struggle in 1959, EOKA succeeded in shaking off British rule but failed to achieve the goal of annexation by Greece.

Instead Cyprus attained independence in 1960 after exhaustive negotiations between the United Kingdom (as the colonial power) and Greece and Turkey, the cultural "motherlands" for the two main communities in Cyprus. While retaining two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, the United Kingdom granted Cyprus independence under a constitution allocating government posts and public offices by ethnic quota.

Post-independence (1960-1974)

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Statue of Makarios III at the Archbishops' Palace in Nicosia.

The 1960 Constitution

Cyprus was declared an independent state on August 16, 1960. The new state's constitution, as defined by the Zürich and London Agreements, explicitly recognised the two main ethnic communities in Cyprus: the Greek Cypriot community with approximately 92% of the population and the Turkish Cypriot community with approximately 8% of the population. These agreements were atypical in that they granted the numerically smaller Turkish Cypriot community political rights within the new republic greater than those of just an ethnic minority community. They were also atypical in that they placed constitutional limits on the absolute independence of the new republic by deeming certain articles unalterable and granting rights and responsibilities to the external guarantor states of Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The complexity of these agreements and their limits on the new Republic’s independence reflected the complex situation in pre-independence Cyprus, where there was little or no cohesive pan-Cypriot national identity, with each of the two main ethnic communities seeking to pursue purely ethnically-based visions for Cyprus' future.

Before independence the Greek Cypriots, largely considering themselves Greeks living in Cyprus rather than Cypriots with Greek ethnicity, sought a Cypriot future based on Enosis, the ceding of Cyprus to Greece. This was thought to be a natural outcome during the Greek War of Independence as well as the fulfillment of the Greek Megali Idea. Enosis for Cyprus was silenced during the Greek War of Independence but was later renewed as the natural expected outcome of the end of British rule.

Turkish Cypriots likewise largely saw themselves as Turks living in Cyprus rather than Cypriots with Turkish ethnicity. For them the idea of handing Cyprus over to Greece after the end of British rule, and therefore becoming citizens in a Hellenic republic, was anathema. Largely in response to calls from the Greek Cypriot community for enosis, the Turkish Cypriot community developed the concept of Taksim, the partitioning of Cyprus into a Greek Cypriot-controlled region, free to pursue enosis as it saw fit, and a Turkish Cypriot-controlled region. This was despite the fact that the two ethnic communities were geographically intermingled throughout Cyprus, and Taksim by its very nature would have required mass population movements.

These differing expectations were why the Zürich and London Agreements, drawn up after lengthy negotiation principally among Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom, became so complex and atypical, granting the Turkish Cypriot community political rights disproportionate to their numbers and containing permanent restrictions on the pursuit of both Enosis and Taksim alike. It is commonly held among Greek Cypriots that these agreements were imposed on them against their will by external powers and that Archbishop Makarios, the recognised leader of the Greek Cypriot community, only signed them under great pressure from the United Kingdom and Greece.

The flag of Cyprus

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The seafront of Limassol.

The Flag of Cyprus came into use on August 16, 1960, under the Zürich and London Agreements. The flag features a geographic depiction of the island above two olive branches symbolising peace. The background is white, also a symbol of peace. Cyprus was the only country to display its land area on its flag until February 2008 when Kosovo declared independence and adopted a new flag which features the land area of Kosovo. The geographic depiction on the flag is shown in copper-yellow, symbolizing the island's large deposits of copper ore for which Cyprus is said to be named.

Before the flag of Cyprus was introduced, the flags of Greece and Turkey were used. The current flag was created as the result of a design competition in 1960. Under the constitution, the flag should not include the colours blue or red (the colours of the flags of Greece and Turkey) and should not portray a cross or a crescent. All participants avoided use of these elements in order to make the flag "neutral".

The winning design was based on a proposal by İsmet Güney, a Turkish Cypriot painter. The design was chosen by Makarios III, the President of Cyprus, with the consent of Vice President Fazil Küçük.

1960-1963

During the period from independence in 1960 to 1963 a series of disputes arose between the two communities over the implementation and interpretation of the agreements and constitution. These disputes involved:

• The 70:30 ratio of Greek Cypriots to Turkish Cypriots in the public service mandated by the constitution but never achieved in practice,
• The establishment of separate municipalities as required by the constitution but also not achieved,
• The use by the Turkish Cypriot leadership of its veto on tax legislation as a means of gaining leverage over other areas of dispute, and
• The status of the Turkish Cypriot vice president, who constitutionally had a veto regarding foreign policy but complained of frequently not being informed about foreign policy initiatives by the Greek Cypriot foreign minister.

Relations between the two communities became increasingly strained during this period, and distrust grew with both sides preparing for military confrontation by establishing groups of armed irregulars and bringing in military officers from the two respective 'motherlands'. In addition the abuse of Constitutional safeguards by the Turkish Cypriot leadership made the Constitution ultimately unworkable, necessitating the submission of constitutional amendments to alter those provisions.

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Aerial view of Nicosia.

The 13 amendments and subsequent intercommunal violence

In November 1963 Archbishop Makarios, by then the first President of the Republic of Cyprus, proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution. The amendments were said to be an attempt to make the cumbersome agreements and constitution of 1960 more workable and to remove causes of friction. Turkey and the Turkish Cypriots, however, claimed that the proposed amendments represented a fundamental change to the basis of the 1960 agreements and would have removed nearly all the political protections the Turkish Cypriot community gained in those agreements. The proposed amendments were immediately rejected, first by Turkey and later by Dr. Küçük, the Turkish Cypriot Vice-President. At Turkey's instigation, the Turkish Cypriot leadership decided to resort to insurrection against the state. The Turkish Cypriot members of the executive, legislature, judiciary, and the civil service withdrew from their posts, and military enclaves were created in Nicosia and other parts of the island. On 21 December 1963 a street brawl erupted in a Turkish quarter of Nicosia between a Turkish Cypriot crowd and plainclothes police officers, resulting in the outbreak of widespread intercommunal violence throughout the island. Against the backdrop of a breakdown of internal security in Cyprus and inter-communal violence threatening to bring into direct conflict the NATO members of Greece and Turkey during the height of the cold war, the United Kingdom and the USA proposed stationing a neutral NATO force within Cyprus to prevent further inter-communal conflict. The Makarios government blocked this move, after which the United Kingdom raised the matter with the UN Security Council by letter on 15 February 1964. On the same date, the Makarios government sent a letter to the Security Council alleging that Turkey was preparing for an obvious, imminent invasion of Cyprus.

Threats by Turkey during this period against the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Cyprus were followed by UN resolutions calling, inter alia, for respect of the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Cyprus. The Security Council debated the unfolding crisis in Cyprus at its 1094th to 1103rd meetings from 17 February to 4 March 1964, and passed UN Security Council resolution 186 on 4 March 1964, establishing a UN peacekeeping force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), and a Mediator was appointed. The peacekeeping force remains to this day. In his subsequent report (S/6253, A/6017, 26 March 1965), the Mediator, Dr Gala Plaza, criticised the 1960 legal framework and proposed certain amendments. These amendments were rejected by Turkey, resulting in serious deterioration of the situation.

Turkish Invasion (1974)

Main article: Turkish invasion of Cyprus

Archbishop Makarios III.

By 1974, dissatisfaction among right-wing Greek nationalists favoring the long-term goal of unification with Greece precipitated a coup d'etat against President Makarios. The coup was sponsored by the military government of Greece and led by Greek officers in the Cypriot National Guard. The Greek military junta and their supporters attempted to assassinate President Makarios. The new regime replaced Makarios with Nikos Giorgiades Sampson as president and Bishop Gennadios as head of the Cypriot Orthodox Church. Seven days later, on 20 July 1974, Turkey launched an air- and sea-based invasion of Cyprus, claiming its aim was "to re-instate the constitution of the Republic of Cyprus" per its obligation under the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee.

The coup was dissolved after strong resistance from the Greek Cypriot people, but the constitution was re-instated only in areas of Cyprus not under Turkish army occupation. Talks in Geneva involving Greece, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the two Cypriot factions stalled, and on 12 August Turkey offered a proposal for a confederate system dividing the island into Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot regions. The Greek government was given 24 hours to accept the terms. The talks soon collapsed after Turkish planes attacked Nicosia, after which Turkish forces advanced from the previous cease-fire lines to gain control of 37% of the island. In the process, large numbers of Greek Cypriots lost their lives in the areas overrun by Turkish forces, and 170,000 Greek Cypriots were evicted from their homes and forced to move to Greek Cypriot-held territory. The invasion also led to the displacement of around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots who migrated from areas under the control of the Republic of Cyprus to Turkish army-controlled areas, sometimes settling in the homes and property left behind by the departing Greek Cypriots. Much of the migration occurred clandestinely, in defiance of Cypriot government-imposed restrictions aimed at preventing the separation of the island's population along ethnic lines.

As of today, there are 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots unaccounted for, as well as over 150,000 Greek Cypriot refugees and over 60,000 Turkish Cypriot displaced persons. The events of the summer of 1974 have dominated Cypriot politics ever since and have been a major point of contention between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, as well as between Greece and Turkey.

Since 1974, continual efforts to negotiate a settlement have met with varying levels of disagreement from both sides in the conflict. The Turkish government arranged an influx of settlers from Turkey, altering the demographics of the island in violation of the Geneva Convention. The exact number of these settlers is disputed but is believed to be more than 100,000.

Turkish Cypriots proclaimed a separate state, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), under the leadership of Rauf Denktaş, on November 15, 1983. UN Security Council Resolution 541 of November 18, 1983 declared the action illegal and called for the withdrawal of Turkish troops. The Resolution also asked all member states to refrain from recognising and providing assistance to the government of the secessionist entity. The only country to recognise the TRNC is Turkey, which does not recognise the authority of the Republic of Cyprus over the whole island. Turkey refers to the government of the Republic of Cyprus as 'the Greek Cypriot administration'.

Modern Era (1975-present)

Main article: Cyprus dispute

File:Lemesos dromos.jpg

An avenue of Limassol.

In 2004 Cyprus was scheduled to join the European Union (EU), and the UN-backed Annan Plan for Cyprus sought to reunify the island before EU accession. The UN plan was put to a vote throughout the island, and Turkish Cypriots accepted the plan while Greek Cypriots rejected it. As a result Cyprus entered the EU as a divided country. EU countries recognize the government of the Republic of Cyprus and officially treat the north as a militarily occupied region. The EU acquis communautaire (European Union law) applies only to those regions under the control of the Republic of Cyprus, although EU ministers have stressed their intention to open direct trade links with the occupied area.

The current state of affairs has affected, but not derailed, negotiations with Turkey regarding its own bid for EU accession. Since the 1974 invasion, the economy of Cyprus has grown substantially, and Cypriots enjoy a high standard of living. The north maintains a lower standard of living due to international embargoes and is still reliant on aid from Turkey, although increased revenues from tourism and a construction boom have led to rapid economic development in recent years. The Turkish Cypriot administration has allowed the legally questionable sale of real estate, consisting largely of property owned by Greek Cypriots before the 1974 Turkish invasion, to private buyers from overseas. In 2005 the UK's Guardian newspaper reported that up to 10,000 Europeans had invested in property in the north of Cyprus. This has caused concern in the south, highlighted by an event in 2006 involving Cherie Booth, the wife of Britain's then-prime minister. Mrs. Booth, in her capacity as an advocate at law, represented a UK couple, the Orams, who had been taken to court by Greek Cypriots who claimed ownership of the land on which the Orams had built a house. Tassos Papadopoulos, President of the Republic of Cyprus since 2003, referred to Mrs. Booth's decision to represent the Orams as "a provocative action", as reported in the UK's Daily Telegraph newspaper.

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An avenue of Nicosia.

On 5 December 2006, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan recommended a further six-month extension in the mandate of the UN peacekeeping force that has been deployed on the island for over four decades. Mr. Annan said that, while the situation remained “calm and stable with no major violations of the ceasefire lines,” he regretted the continued stalemate in the political process and the “missed opportunities” of the past 10 years.

In July 2006 the island served as a safe haven for people, most of them foreigners, fleeing Lebanon due to the conflict between Israel and Hezbollah.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Cyprus and List of cities, towns and villages in Cyprus

Kyrenia Mountain Range.

Topography of Cyprus.

The third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily and Sardinia), Cyprus is situated in the eastern Mediterranean, just south of the Anatolian peninsula (or Asia Minor) of the Asian mainland; thus, it is often included in the Middle East (see also Western Asia and Near East). Turkey is 75 kilometres (47 mi) north; other neighbouring countries include Syria and Lebanon to the east, Israel to the southeast, Egypt to the south, and Greece to the west-north-west.

However, historically, politically and culturally Cyprus is closely aligned with Europe – the Greek Cypriots with Greece and the Turkish Cypriots with Turkey. Historically, Cyprus has been at the crossroads between Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa, with lengthy periods of mainly Greek and intermittent Anatolian, Levantine, and British influences. Though these influences may cause some to consider Cyprus as a transcontinental island, such a term is properly applied only to nations whose boundaries straddle more than one continent e.g. Turkey, Russia and Egypt.

The central plain, the Mesaoria, is bordered by the Kyrenia and Pentadactylos mountains to the north and the Troödos mountain range to the south and west. There are also scattered, but significant, plains along the southern coast. The island's highest point is at the summit of Mount Olympus 1,952 metres (6,404 ft), in the heart of the Troödos range.

The major cities in Cyprus are the capital Nicosia (Lefkosia in Greek, Lefkoşa in Turkish), Limassol (Lemesos in Greek), Larnaca, Paphos, Famagusta (Gazimağusa or Mağusa in Turkish, Ammochostos in Greek), and Kyrenia (Girne in Turkish, Kerynia in Greek).

Climate

The climate is temperate and Mediterranean with dry summers and variably rainy winters. Summer temperatures range from warm at higher elevations in the Tröodos mountains to hot in the lowlands. Winter temperatures are mild at lower elevations, where snow rarely occurs, but are significantly colder in the mountains, where there is sufficient snow for a seasonal ski facility. Dust storms are frequent throughout the year.

Government

File:Presidential-palace.jpg

The Presidential Palace (Residence) in Nicosia.

Main articles: Politics of Cyprus and Foreign relations of Cyprus

After independence, Cyprus became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement despite all three guarantor powers (Greece, Turkey and the UK) being NATO members. Cyprus left the Non-Aligned Movement in 2004 to join the European Union, though it retains special observer status.

The 1960 Cypriot Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances, including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive, for example, was headed by a Greek Cypriot president, Archbishop Makarios III, and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, Dr. Fazıl Küçük, elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions.

The House of Representatives was elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls. Since 1964, following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House remained vacant, while the Greek Cypriot Communal Chamber was abolished. The responsibilities of the chamber were transferred to the newly founded Ministry of Education.

By 1967, when a military junta had seized power in Greece, the political impetus for enosis had faded, partly as a result of the non-aligned foreign policy of Cypriot President Makarios. Enosis remained an ideological goal, despite being pushed significantly further down the political agenda. Dissatisfaction in Greece with Makarios's perceived failure to deliver on earlier promises of enosis convinced the Greek colonels to sponsor the 1974 coup in Nicosia.

Turkey responded by launching a military operation on Cyprus, the "Cyprus Peace Operation". Turkish forces captured the northern part of the island. Many thousands of others, from both sides, left the island entirely. In addition to many of the Greek Cypriot refugees (a third of the population), many Turkish Cypriots also moved to the UK and other countries where for the past 30 years they have lived as neighbours with the Greek Cypriots. In the meantime Turkey illegally imported Turkish colonists to populate the occupied territories, thereby altering the ethnic make up of the occupied north. Under the Geneva Conventions of 1949, it is a war crime to transfer, directly or indirectly, the civilian population of a country power onto land under that country's military occupation.

Subsequently, the Turkish Cypriots established their own separatist institutions with a popularly elected de facto President and a Prime Minister responsible to the National Assembly exercising joint executive powers. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriots declared an independent state called the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), an action opposed by the United Nations Security Council. In 1985, the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections.

Political division

Cyprus gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, with the UK, Greece and Turkey retaining limited rights to intervene in internal affairs.

In July 1974, after an attempted coup against the Makarios government by extreme right-wing factions aided by the Greek junta, Turkey invaded Cyprus. The coup had been quashed before the arrival of Turkish paratroopers. Turkey has ever since occupied the northern part by a military force estimated at 35 to 60 thousand troops . Cyprus has been divided, de facto, into the Greek-Cypriot controlled rump of the Republic, somewhat less than two-thirds of the island and the Turkish-occupied approximately one third in the north. Further, British sovereign bases under the term of the establishment of the Republic in 1960, occupy 99 square miles (256 square kilometers). The Republic of Cyprus is the legitimate internationally-recognised government of Cyprus. Turkey aside, all foreign governments and the United Nations recognise the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the whole island of Cyprus.

The Turkish Cypriot administration of the northern part of the island, together with Turkey, rejects the Republic's rule over the whole island and refers to it as the "Greek Authority of Southern Cyprus". The TRNC's territory, known internationally as the "occupied area", extends over the northern 36 percent of the island.

The other power with territory on island of Cyprus is the United Kingdom. Under the independence agreement, the UK retained entitlement to lease two areas on the southern coast of the island, around Akrotiri and Dhekelia. Known collectively as the UK sovereign base areas, they are used as military bases.

Districts

Main articles: Districts of Cyprus and List of cities, towns and villages in Cyprus

The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts: Nicosia (the capital), Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos.

Map of Cyprus	Districts	Greek name	Turkish name
	Famagusta	Αμμόχωστος (Ammochostos)	Gazimağusa/Mağusa
	Kyrenia	Κερύvεια (Keryneia)	Girne
	Larnaca	Λάρνακα (Larnaka)	Larnaka/İskele
	Limassol	Λεμεσός (Lemesos)	Limasol/Leymosun
	Nicosia	Λευκωσία (Lefkosia)	Lefkoşa
	Paphos	Πάφος (Pafos)	Baf

Exclaves and enclaves

Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia. The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou. Additionally there is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an enclave, like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an enclave —although it has no territorial waters of its own [6].

The UN buffer zone separating the territory controlled by the Turkish Cypriot administration from the rest of Cyprus runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side, off Ayios Nikolaos (connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor). In that sense, the buffer zone turns the south-east corner of the island, the Paralimni area, into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave.

The Annan Plan and EU entry

Further information: Annan Plan for Cyprus; Cypriot Annan Plan referendum, 2004; and United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus

The results of early negotiations between Greek and Turkish politicians led to a broad agreement in principle for reunification as a bi-cameral, bi-zonal federation with territory allocated to the Greek and Turkish communities within a united island. However, agreement was never reached on the finer details, and negotiations were often deadlocked over the following points, among others:

The Greek side:

• took a strong line on the right of return for refugees to properties vacated in the 1974 displacement of Cypriots on both sides, which was based on both UN Resolutions and decisions of the European Court of Human Rights;
• took a dim view of any proposals which did not allow for the repatriation of Turkish settlers from the mainland who had emigrated to Cyprus since 1974; and
• supported a stronger central government.

The Turkish side:

• favoured a weak central government presiding over two sovereign states in voluntary association, a legacy of earlier fears of domination by the majority Greek Cypriots; and
• opposed plans for demilitarisation, citing security concerns.

The continued difficulties in finding a settlement presented a potential obstacle to Cypriot entry to the European Union, for which the government had applied in 1997. UN-sponsored talks between the Greek and Turkish leaders, Glafkos Klerides and Rauf Denktash, continued intensively in 2002, but without resolution. In December 2002, the EU formally invited Cyprus to join in 2004, insisting that EU membership would apply to the whole island and hoping that it would provide a significant enticement for reunification resulting from the outcome of ongoing talks. However, weeks before the UN deadline, Klerides was defeated in presidential elections by centre candidate Tassos Papadopoulos. Papadopoulos had a reputation as a hard-liner on reunification and based his stance on international law and human rights. By mid-March, the UN declared that the talks had failed.

Agia Napa.

A United Nations plan sponsored by Secretary-General Kofi Annan was announced on 31 March 2004, based on what progress had been made during the talks in Switzerland and fleshed out by the UN, was put for the first time to civilians on both sides in separate referendums on 24 April 2004. The Greek side overwhelmingly rejected the Annan Plan, and the Turkish side voted in favour. Turkish settlers (who make up the majority in the occupied north) were allowed to vote, but the refugees who had fled Cyprus were not.

In May 2004, Cyprus entered the European Union, although in practice membership only applies to the southern part of the island which is in the control of the Republic of Cyprus, but this reality does not concern the personal rights of native Turkish Cypriots as EU citizens, as they are considered as citizens of the Member State Republic of Cyprus.

In 2005, Turkish Cypriots demolished the part of the wall along the boundary that for decades has split Europe's last divided capital. The demolished wall had cut across Ledra Street, which runs through the heart of the city's tourist area and is seen as the strongest symbol of the island's 32-year partition. In March 2007, Greek Cypriots demolished the part of the wall on the Greek side.

Human rights

The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues. Prostitution is rife in both the government-controlled and the Turkish-occupied regions, and the island as a whole has been criticised for its role in the sex trade as one of the main routes of human trafficking from Eastern Europe. The regime in the North has been the focus of occasional freedom of speech criticisms regarding heavy-handed treatment of newspaper editors. Domestic violence legislation in the Republic remains largely unimplemented, and it has not yet been passed into law in the North. Reports on the mistreatment of domestic staff, mostly immigrant workers from third world countries, are sometimes reported in the Greek Cypriot press.

Military

Main article: Military of Cyprus

The Cypriot National Guard is the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus. It is a combined arms force, with land, air and naval elements.

The land forces of the Cypriot National Guard comprise the following units:

• First Infantry Division (Ιη Μεραρχία ΠΖ)
• Second Infantry Division'(ΙΙα Μεραρχία ΠΖ)
• Fourth Infantry Brigade (ΙVη Ταξιαρχία ΠΖ)
• Twentieth Armored Brigade (ΧΧη ΤΘ Ταξιαρχία)
• Third Support Brigade (ΙΙΙη Ταξιαρχία ΥΠ)
• Eighth Support Brigade (VIIIη Ταξιαρχία ΥΠ)

The air force includes the 449th Helicopter Gunship Squadron (449 ΜΑΕ) - operating SA-342L and Bell 206 and the 450th Helicopter Gunship Squadron'(450 ME/P) - operating Mi-35P, BN-2B and PC-9. Current Senior officers include Supreme Commander, Cypriot National Guard: Lt. Gen. Konstantinos Bisbikas, Deputy Commander, Cypriot National Guard: Lt. Gen. Savvas Argyrou and Chief of Staff, Cypriot National Guard: Maj. Gen. Gregory Stamoulis.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Cyprus

File:Yiorkeion.jpg

The Yiorkeion business complex in Nicosia

The Cypriot economy is prosperous and has diversified in recent years. Its per-capita GDP (adjusted for purchasing power) is slightly lower than that of France, Germany, Italy and the UK, but slightly higher than the European Union average. Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses, due to its highly developed infrastructure. Economic policy of the Cyprus government has focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union. Adoption of the euro as a national currency is required of all new countries joining the European Union, and the Cypriot government adopted the currency on 1 January 2008.

Oil has recently been discovered in the seabed between Cyprus and Egypt, and talks are underway between Lebanon and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.

The economy of the Turkish-occupied area is dominated by the services sector, including the public sector, trade, tourism and education, with smaller agriculture and light manufacturing sectors. The economy operates on a free-market basis, although it continues to be handicapped by the political isolation of Turkish Cypriots, the lack of private and governmental investment, high freight costs, and shortages of skilled labor. Despite these constraints, the economy turned in an impressive performance in 2003 and 2004, with growth rates of 9.6% and 11.4%. The average income in the area is $5,000 per capita, and the Turkish government has pledged to increase this to $12,000 through investment and aid. Growth has been buoyed by the relative stability of the Turkish new lira and by a boom in the education and construction sectors.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Cyprus

Population Growth.

Population structure.

According to the last census carried out by the Republic in 1960, Greek Cypriots comprise 77% of the island's population, Turkish Cypriots 18%, while the remaining 5% are of other ethnicities. However, after the Turkish invasion of 1974, about 150,000 Turks from Anatolia were transferred or decided to settle in the north. This has changed the actual demographic structure of the island. Northern Cyprus now claims 265,100 inhabitants, closer to 30% of the population of the island. The TRNC has granted citizenship to these immigrants: however, as the TRNC is not recognised by the Republic or the international community (with the exception of Turkey), its power to create new citizens is not recognised and the newcomers retain Turkish passports. The result of this situation is that percentage population estimates vary widely.

In the years since the census data was gathered in 2000, Cyprus has also seen a large influx of guest workers from countries such as Thailand, the Philippines and Sri Lanka, as well as major increases in the numbers of permanent British residents. The island is also home to a significant Armenian minority, as well as a large refugee population consisting of people mainly from Serbia, Palestine and Lebanon. There is also a Kurdish minority present in Cyprus.

Since the country joined the European Union, a significant Polish population has also grown up, joining sizeable communities from Russia and Ukraine (mostly Pontic Greeks, immigrating after the fall of the Eastern Bloc), Bulgaria, Romania and Eastern European states.

There is also a significant and thriving Cypriot Diaspora in other countries, with the United States, the United Kingdom, Greece and Australia hosting the majority of migrants who fled the Turkish invasion in 1974.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Cyprus

File:Larnaka eklisia.jpg

Agios Lazaros Church in Larnaca.

Most Greek Cypriots, and thus the majority of the population of Cyprus, are members of the Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Cyprus (Cypriot Orthodox Church), whereas most Turkish Cypriots are Muslim. According to Eurobarometer 2005 , Cyprus is one of the most religious countries in Europe, along with Malta, Romania, Greece and Poland. In addition to the Orthodox Christian and Muslim communities, there are also small Baha'i, Jewish, Protestant, Roman Catholic, Maronite (Eastern Rites Catholic) and Armenian Apostolic communities in Cyprus. Cyprus also has a small Buddhist minority (1%).

Education

Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. The high quality of instruction can be attributed to a large extent to the above-average competence of the teachers: in stark contrast to attitudes towards teaching prevalent in most developed countries, being a (state) school teacher (elementary or high-school) is one of the most sought-after professions in Cyprus thanks to the good employment conditions (unassailable job security, more than adequate compensation package, generous vacation package), but also due to the lack of viable alternatives for many university graduates. However, while there are hundreds of candidates for each new teaching position, appointments are not made on the basis of merit, but in a first-in, first-out fashion according to the date of completion of the candidates' university studies. While prospective high school teachers for Chemistry (say) are required to have a university degree in Chemistry, a background in education or pedagogics is not expected.

State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private sector institutions. However, the value of a state high school diploma is limited by the fact that it is not obtained after successfully completing a series of centrally administered examinations, such as the British A-Levels, the French Baccalaureat or the German Abitur. While students do need to take some nation-wide final exams on certain topics, the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way. The resulting grade inflation (partly also due to an effort to artificially minimize the number of high-school dropouts) as well as inconsistencies in grading practice across teachers and schools, result in high school diplomas being only partly recognized by British universities, with elite universities requiring further evidence of scholastic aptitude, such as A-levels or other solid credentials. Greek (List of universities in Greece) and Cypriot universities (University of Cyprus) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes. While a high school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take. Unlike state high school students, most of whom go on to study in Greece, private school students usually study in Britain and the USA. The main problem faced in public education, where classes end around noon, is the need of extra lessons in the afternoon, typically taken at privately-run institutes or at teachers' homes. Students in private schools tend to rely less on such extra lessons. Neither for their entrance to the university nor for the school syllabus. The government is trying to eliminate this problem but this seems impossible at its current state.

The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and Australia. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities.

According to the 1960 constitution, education is under the control of the two communities (the communal chambers). State education was based on nationalisation of existing community supported schools from the colonial period. Thus following 1974 the Cypriot system follows the Greek system in the area under the Republic's effective control, in other words providing their students with an apolytirion, and the Turkish system in the area not under the Republics effective control. A large number of students after sitting for A-levels and/or SATs study abroad, mainly in English speaking countries such as the United Kingdom or the United States, but also in other European destinations such as France and Germany. Traditionally the communist party AKEL provided scholarships for its members to study in Eastern Europe. Eastern European countries, especially Bulgaria and Hungary, are still popular destinations for students.

In the north there are several universities, which are mostly attended by Turkish Cypriot and Turkish students. These institutions are not regulated by the Republic of Cyprus, but are regulated by the Turkish higher education council [7] and Turkish Cypriot Educational Administrations.

Culture

Further information: Culture of Cyprus

Language

The 1960 constitution of the Republic of Cyprus establishes Greek and Turkish as official languages. Due to the geographic separation of the Greek-Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot communities following the Turkish invasion in 1974, Greek now predominates in the South and Turkish in the North. English is widely understood on both sides of the island, especially among the younger generations. The large number of foreigners living in Cyprus has contributed to the maintenance of English as a semi-official language. In the Greek-speaking south most forms and services, both public and private, are available in both English and Greek (bank contracts, phone bills, tax returns etc). English documents from abroad, such as university degrees, birth certificates and the like, do not need to be translated into Greek to be used officially. English is also used as the primary means of communication between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, especially among younger generations. Political contacts between the two communities are carried out exclusively in English.

Prior to the de facto partition of the island in 1974, Greek was widely understood among Turkish Cypriots living in mixed communities. To this day, 19% of the residents of Northern Cyprus report being able to speak Greek . It should be noted, however, that even prior to 1974, Turkish Cypriots attended separate, monolingual Turkish-language schools and thus never achieved mastery of the written Greek language.

For everyday informal (oral) communication, both Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots use local dialects of their respective languages which are different from the "standard" versions: Greek Cypriot Dialect and Turkish-Cypriot dialect. Native speakers from the Greek mainland report difficulty in understanding their linguistic kin on the island. However, the Turkish Cypriot dialect is fully comprehensible to mainland Turkey with accent being the main difference. Almost everybody on the island can communicate in standard Greek/Turkish, albeit with an accent. Neither political administrations on the island implement any instruction of the others language within the educational curriculum.

Art

Kourion

Notable artists include Rhea Bailey, Mihail Kkasialos, Theodoulos Gregoriou, Helene Black, George Skoteinos, Hüseyin Çakmak, Kalopedis family, Nicos Nicolaides, Stass Paraskos, Arestís Stasí, Telemachos Kanthos, Adamantios Diamantis and Konstantia Sofokleous

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Cyprus

Halloumi, (a cheese made from a mixture of goat's and sheep's milk) originates from Cyprus, and is commonly served sliced and grilled as an appetizer. Seafood dishes of Cyprus include calamari (squid), octopus in red wine, (red mullet), and sea bass. Cucumber and tomato are used widely in Cypriot cuisine. Other common vegetable preparations include potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, kolokasi (taro) and asparagus. Meat dishes marinated in dried coriander seeds and wine, and eventually dried and smoked, such as lounza, charcoal grilled lamb (souvla), sheftalia (minced meat wrapped in mesentery), as well as cracked wheat (pourgouri) are some of the traditional delicacies of the island.

Music

Main article: Music of Cyprus

Cypriot composers include Solon Michaelides, Evagoras Karagiorgis, Nicolas Economou, Marios Tokas, Alkinoos Ioannidis and Marios Joannou Elia. Cypriot pop singers and composers include Michalis Hatzigiannis, Anna Vissi, Lia Vissi, Alexia (Cypriot singer), Costandina, Costandinos Christoforou, Despoina Olympiou, Marianta Pieridi, Marlen Angelidou, Lisa Andreas, Evridiki, Nikola K, Michalis Violaris, Terlikas, Kiriakou Pelagia, Costas Cacoyiannis, Giorgos Theofanous, Christodoulos Siganos, Andreas Ektoras, Stavros Costandinou, Stella Georgiadou, Alexandros Panayi, Andy Paul, Evridiki, Giorgos Theofanous, Isin Karaca and Ziynet Sali.

Sports

Governing bodies of sport in Cyprus include the Cyprus Automobile Association, Cyprus Basketball Federation, Cyprus Cricket Association, Cyprus Football Association, Cyprus Rugby Federation and the Cyprus Volleyball Federation. Marcos Baghdatis is one of the most successful Cypriot tennis players. He reached the Wimbledon semi-final in 2006. Also Kyriakos Ioannou a Cypriot high jumper born in Limassol achieved a jump of 2.35m at the 11th IAAF World Championships in Athletics held in Osaka, Japan, in 2007 winning the bronze medal

The island has a keen football culture. Notable football teams include Anorthosis Famagusta FC, AEK Larnaca, AEL Limassol, AEP Paphos FC, APEP Pitsilia, APOEL FC, APOP Kinyras Peyias FC, Alki Larnaca FC, Apollon Limassol, Aris Limassol F.C., Ayia Napa FC, Digenis Akritas Morphou, Doxa Katokopia, Enosis Neon Paralimni FC, ENTHOI Lakatamia FC, Ethnikos Achna FC, Nea Salamis FC, Olympiakos Nicosia, AC Omonia and PAEEK. Stadiums or sports venues in Cyprus include the GSP Stadium(the largest and home venue of the Cypiot national football team), Makario Stadium, Neo GSZ Stadium, Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium and Tsirion Stadium. The Cyprus Rally is also on the sporting agenda.

Media

Newspapers include the Cyprus Mail, the Cyprus Observer, Famagusta Gazette, Cyprus Today, Cyprus Weekly, Financial Mirror, Haravgi, Makhi, Phileleftheros, Politis (Cyprus), and Simerini.

TV channels include ANT1 Cyprus, Alfa TV, CNC Plus TV, Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, Lumiere TV, Middle East Television, Mega Channel Cyprus and Sigma TV.

Literature

Cyprus has a continuous literary tradition since the Ancient times. Literary production of the antiquity includes the Cypria, epic poems, probably composed in the later seventh century BCE and they are attributed to Stasinus. Cypria are from the very first specimens of Greek and European poetry. Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic philosophy. Medieval years was also a period with a significant literary production, related not only to religion. Epic Poetry notably the "acritic songs" flourished that period. Two chronicles one written by Leontios Machairas and the other by Voustronios refer to the period under French domination (15th century). Poèmes d' amour (16th century) written in medieval Greek Cypriot are sonnets, some of them are actual translations of poems written by Petrarch, Bembo, Ariosto and G. Sannazzaro. Modern literary figures from Cyprus include the poet and writer Kostas Montis, poet Kyriakos Charalambides, poet Michalis Pasardis, writer Nicos Nicolaides, Stylianos Atteshlis, Altheides and also Demetris Th. Gotsis. Dimitris Lipertis and Vasilis Michaelides are folk poets who wrote poems mainly in the Cypriot-Greek dialect. Important Turkish Cypriots Poets are: Nesie Yasin, Osman Türkay. Cyprus has influenced Literature in general as the birth place of Venus Goddess of Love. The majority of the play Othello, written by William Shakespeare took place also on the island of Cyprus. Cyprus is important for the religious literature as well for Christians and Muslims, as the Apostles Barnabas, Paulus came to Cyprus (see Acts of the Apostles).

Infrastructure

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Cyprus

Nicosia's Airport remains closed since the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974.

File:Limassol-Seafront'.jpg

Aerial view of the promenade in Limassol

Since the last railway was dismantled in 1950, the remaining modes of transport are by road, sea, and air. Of the 10,663 km (6,626 mi) of roads in the Greek Cypriot area as of 1998, 6,249 km (3,883 mi) were paved, and 4,414 km (2,743 mi) were unpaved. As of 1996 the Turkish Cypriot area had a similar ratio of paved to unpaved, with approximately 1,370 km (850 mi) of paved road and 980 km (610 mi) unpaved. Cyprus is one of only four EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left-hand side of the road, a remnant of British colonization.

Motorways

Main article: Roads and Motorways in Cyprus

• A1 Nicosia to Limassol
• A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca
• A3 Larnaca to Agia Napa
• A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca
• A6 Pafos to Limassol
• A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis (partially under construction)

Number of licensed vehicles

Vehicle Category	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005
Private vehicles	270,348	277,554	291,645	324,212	344,953
Taxis	1,641	1,559	1,696	1,770	1,845
Rental cars	8,080	8,509	9,160	9,652	8,336
Buses	3,003	2,997	3,275	3,199	3,217
Light trucks (lighter than 40 tonnes)	107,060	106,610	107,527	105,017	105,327
Heavy trucks (over 40 tonnes)	10,882	11,182	12,119	12,808	13,028
Motorcycles (2 wheels)	12,956	14,983	16,009	16,802	16,836
Motorcycles (3 wheels)	42	41	43	55	558
Scooters	28,987	25,252	25,464	24,539	22,987
TOTAL	442,999	448,687	466,938	498,054	517,087

In 1999, Cyprus had six heliports and two international airports: Larnaca International Airport and Paphos International Airport. Nicosia International Airport has been closed since 1974.

Public transport in Cyprus is limited to privately run bus services (except in Nicosia), taxis, and 'shared' taxi services (referred to locally as service taxis). Per capita private car ownership is the 5th highest in the world. In 2006 extensive plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank. The main harbours of the island are Limassol harbour and Larnaca harbour, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships.

Health care

Urban hospitals include:

• Nicosia New General Hospital- Nicosia
• Nicosia Old General Hospital
• Makario Hospital- Nicosia
• Limassol New General Hospital- Limassol
• Limassol Old General Hospital- Limassol
• Larnaca New General Hospital- Larnaca
• Larnaca Old General Hospital- Larnaca
• Paphos general hospital- Paphos

Telecommunications

Main article: Communications in Cyprus

Cyta, the state-owned telecommunications company, manages most Telecommunications and Internet connections on the island. However, following the recent liberalization of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies have emerged including MTN, Cablenet, TelePassport, OTEnet Telecom and PrimeTel

International membership

The island nation Cyprus is member of: Australia Group,CN, CE, CFSP, EBRD, EIB, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ITUC, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO,ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ITU, MIGA, NAM, NSG, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO. [8] [9]

International rankings

Organization	Survey	Ranking
State of World Liberty Project	State of World Liberty Index	9 out of 159
United Nations Development Programme	Human Development Index 2006 Human Development Index 2004 Human Development Index 2000	29 out of 177 29 out of 177 29 out of 177
The Economist	Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005	23 out of 111
University of Leicester	Satisfaction with Life Index	49 out of 178
Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal	Index of Economic Freedom	20 out of 157
Reporters Without Borders	Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006 Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2005	30 out of 168 25(tied) out of 168
Transparency International	Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2005 Corruption Perceptions Index 2004	37 out of 163 37 out of 158 36 out of 145
World Economic Forum	Global Competitiveness Report	46 out of 125
International Monetary Fund	GDP per capita	31 out of 180
Yale University/Columbia University	Environmental Sustainability Index 2005	not ranked
Nationmaster	Labor strikes	not ranked
A.T. Kearney / Foreign Policy	Globalization Index 2006 Globalization Index 2005 Globalization Index 2004	not ranked

References

• This image is available from the United States Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division under the digital ID {{{id}}}
  This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Wikipedia:Copyrights for more information.
•  This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
• Official Cyprus Government Web Site
• Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background

Further reading

• Hitchens, Christopher (1997). Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-189-9.
• Brewin, Christopher (2000). European Union and Cyprus. Eothen Press. ISBN 0-906719-24-0.
• Dods, Clement (ed.) (1999). Cyprus: The Need for New Perspectives. The Eothen Press. ISBN 0-906719-23-2. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
• Durrell, Lawrence (1957). Bitter Lemons. Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571201-55-5.
• Gibbons, Harry Scott (1997). The Genocide Files. Charles Bravos Publishers. ISBN 0-9514464-2-8.
• Hannay, David (2005). Cyprus: The Search for a Solution. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-665-7.
• Ker-Lindsay, James (2005). EU Accession and UN Peacemaking in Cyprus. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-9690-3.
• Mirbagheri, Farid (1989). Cyprus and International Peacemaking. Hurst. ISBN 1-85065-354-2.
• Nicolet, Claude (2001). United States Policy Towards Cyprus, 1954-1974. Bibliopolis. ISBN 3-933925-20-7.
• Oberling, Pierre (1982). The Road to Bellapais. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-88033-000-7.
• O'Malley, Brendan and Ian Craig (1999). The Cyprus Conspiracy. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-737-5.
• Palley, Claire (2005). An International Relations Debacle: The UN Secretary-General's Mission of Good Offices in Cyprus, 1999-2004. Hart Publishing. ISBN 1-84113-578-X.
• Papadakis, Yiannis (2005). Echoes from the Dead Zone: Across the Cyprus Divide. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-428-X.
• Plumer, Aytug (2003 isbn= 975-6912-18-9). Cyprus, 1963-64: The Fateful Years. Cyrep (Lefkosa). {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Missing pipe in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• Richmond, Oliver (1998). Mediating in Cyprus. Frank Cass. ISBN 0-7146-4431-5.
• Richmond, Oliver and James Ker-Lindsay (eds.) (2001). The Work of the UN in Cyprus: Promoting Peace and Development. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-91271-3. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
• Tocci, Nathalie (2004). EU Accession Dynamics and Conflict Resolution: Catalysing Peace or Consolidating Partition in Cyprus?. Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-4310-7.
• Anastasiou, Harry (2006). Broken Olive Branch: Nationalism Ethnic Conflict and the Quest for Peace in Cyprus. Author House. ISBN 1-4259-4360-8.

External links

Wikimedia Atlas of Cyprus

• Template:Wikitravel

Government

• Cyprus Trade Centres Worldwide
• Cyprus High Commission Trade Centre - London
• Cypriot Diaspora Project
• Republic of Cyprus - Greek Language
• Republic of Cyprus - English Language
• Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus
• Press and Information Office
• Central Bank of Cyprus

General information

• Several maps of Cyprus, including ethnic population distribution before and after partition.
• Live weather station from Nicosia - Cyprus
• CIA World Factbook - Cyprus
• US State Department - Cyprus includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
• "The Cyprus Conflict" An extensive educational web site dedicated to the Cyprus Conflict
• Open Directory Project - Cyprus directory category
• News and information about both parts of Cyprus
• The UN in Cyprus
• Free Cyprus GPS maps
• Bibliography on the Jews of Cyprus (Chiefly in Hebrew and English)

Official publications

• The British government's Foreign Affairs Committee report on Cyprus.
• Letter by the President of the Republic, Mr Tassos Papadopoulos, to the U.N. Secretary-General, Mr Kofi Annan, dated June 7, which circulated as an official document of the U.N. Security Council
• Legal Issues arising from certain population transfers and displacements on the territory of the Republic of Cyprus in the period since 20 July 1974
• Address to Cypriots by President Papadopoulos (FULL TEXT)
• The Republic of Cyprus Press and Information Office, Aspects of the Cyprus Problem
• Noitiki Antistasis, [10] Non-affiliated news website focusing mainly on the effect of globalization and foreign interests on the Cyprus problem
• 1st Report of the European Commission of Human Rights; Turkey's intervention in Cyprus and aftermath (20 July 1974 - 18 May 1976)
• 2nd Report of the European Commission of Human Rights; Turkey's intervention in Cyprus and aftermath (19 May 1976 to 10 February 1983)
• European Court of Human Rights Case of Cyprus v. Turkey (Application no. 25781/94)