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NeXT Software, Inc.
IndustryComputer hardware
Computer software
Founded1985 (California, United States)
Defunct1996
FateBought by Apple, Inc.
HeadquartersRedwood City, California, United States
Key people
Steve Jobs, Chairman and CEO
Ross Perot, Director
John Patrick Crecine, Director
Avie Tevanian, VP of Engineering
Mitchell Mandich, VP of Sales and Services
ProductsNeXT Computer
NeXTcube
NeXTstation
NeXTdimension
NeXTSTEP
OPENSTEP
WebObjects
Number of employees
240 (1993)[1]

NeXT Software, Inc. (previously NeXT Computer, Inc.) was an American computer company headquartered in Redwood City, California that developed and manufactured a series of computer workstations intended for the higher education and business markets. NeXT was founded in 1985 by Apple Computer co-founder Steve Jobs after his resignation from Apple. NeXT introduced the first NeXT Computer in 1988. In 1989, Canon invested $100 million in NeXT, giving it a 16.67% stake.[2] NeXT developed the NEXTSTEP operating system, later released as a programming environment called OPENSTEP.

NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP for Intel-based hardware. NeXT also developed WebObjects, one of the first Enterprise web application frameworks. Apple purchased NeXT on December 20, 1996 for $400 million.[3] Parts of NeXT's software were later used as the foundation for Mac OS X, the current operating system used on Macintosh computers.[4]

History

1985–1986: Founding Next

In 1984, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs was the head of Apple's SuperMicro division, which was responsible for the development of the Macintosh and Lisa personal computers.

The Macintosh had been successful on university campuses mostly because of the Apple University Consortium, which allowed students and institutions to buy the computers at significant discounts.[5][6] The consortium had sold more than $50 million in computers by February 1984.[7] As chairman, Jobs visited university departments and faculty members to sell Macintoshes. Jobs met Paul Berg, a Nobel Laureate, at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honor François Mitterrand.[8][9] Berg was frustrated by the expense of teaching students about recombinant DNA from textbooks instead of in wet labs, which were prohibitively expensive for lower-level courses. Berg suggested to Jobs that he use his influence at Apple to create a 3M workstation, featuring more than one megabyte of RAM (hence the name), a megapixel display and megaflop performance.

Jobs was intrigued by Berg's concept for a workstation and contemplated starting a higher education computer company in the fall of 1985, amidst increasing turmoul at Apple. Jobs' division failed to release upgraded versions of the Macintosh and most of the Macintosh Office.[10] As a result, sales plummeted,[11] and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory.[12] Apple CEO John Sculley ousted Jobs his day-to-day role at Apple, replacing him with Jean-Louis Gassée in 1985.[13] Later that year, Jobs began a power struggle to regain control of the company. The board of directors sided with Sculley, while Jobs toured Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple.[14]

After several months of being sidelined at Apple, he resigned on Friday, September 13, 1985, telling the board of directors that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing its designs back to Apple to market under the Macintosh brand.[15]

Jobs was joined by former Apple employees Bud Tribble, George Crow, Rich Page, Susan Barnes, Susan Kare, and Dan’l Lewin and named his new company Next Computer, Inc. After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country (including a follow-up meeting with Paul Berg), a tentative specification was drawn up. The workstation was designed to be powerful enough to run wet lab simulations and cheap enough for college students to use in their dorm rooms.[16]

Before the specifications were finished, Apple sued Next for "nefarious schemes" to take advantage of the cofounders' insider information.[17][8] Jobs remarked, "It is hard to think that a $2 billion company with 4,300-plus people couldn't compete with six people in blue jeans."[8] The suit was eventually dismissed before trial.

Jobs recruited graphic designer Paul Rand in 1986 to create a brand identity costing $100,000.[18] Rand created a 100-page brochure detailing the brand, including the precise angle used (28°) and a new company name, NeXT.[18] The first major outside investment was from Ross Perot, who originally saw NeXT employees and Jobs featured on the television show The Entrepreneurs. In 1987 he invested $20 million in exchange for 16% of NeXT's stock, valuing the company at US$125 million. He subsequently joined the board of directors in 1988.[19]

1987–1993: NeXT Computer

First generation

File:Premier serveur Web.jpeg
The NeXT Computer used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the world's first Web server.

By mid-1986, NeXT changed its business plan; they would not only create an object-oriented programming environment, but they would also build hardware and a Unix-like Mach-based operating system. A team led by Avie Tevanian, who had joined the company after working as one of the Mach engineers at Carnegie Mellon University, was to develop the operating system, while the hardware division led by Rich Page, one of the cofounders who had previously led the Apple Lisa team, were to develop and design the hardware. The name of the company was changed to NeXT Computer, Inc., incorporating the capital letters from the logo.

By 1987, NeXT's first factory was completed in Fremont, California; it was capable of producing 150,000 machines per year.[8] NeXT's workstation was named the NeXT Computer. It was later known as the NeXTcube because of its distinctive case designed by frogdesign.[20] It was based on the new 25 MHz Motorola 68030 Central processing unit (CPU). The Motorola 88000 RISC chip was originally considered, but was not available in sufficient quantities.[21] Prototype workstations were shown to standing ovations on October 12, 1988, and several magazines reviewed the system, all concentrating on the hardware. By 1989, the machines were in testing, and NeXT started selling limited numbers to universities with a beta version of the NeXTSTEP operating system installed. Initially the NeXT Computer was targeted at US higher education establishments only, with a base price of US$6,500.[22] When asked if he was upset that the computer's debut was delayed by several months, Jobs responded, "Late? This computer is five years ahead of its time!"[23]

The NeXT Computer included between 8 and 64 MB of random access memory (RAM), a 256 MB magneto-optical drive (MO) drive, a 40 MB (swap-only), 330 MB, or 660 MB hard drive, 10Base-2 Ethernet, NuBus and a 17-inch MegaPixel grayscale display measuring 1120 by 832 pixels. In 1989, a typical PC included 64 KB to 4 MB of RAM, the 8086, 8088, 286 or 386 CPU, a 640×350 16-color or 720×348 monochrome display, a 10 to 20 megabyte hard drive and few networking capabilities.[24][25]

The magneto-optical drive manufactured by Canon was used as the primary mass storage device. These drives were relatively new to the market, and the NeXT was the first computer to use them.[26] They were cheaper than hard drives but slower (with an average seek time of 96 ms). The design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network, since each NeXT Computer had only one MO drive and the disk could not be removed without shutting down the system.[26] Storage options proved challenging for the first NeXT Computers. The magneto-optical drive was expensive and had performance and reliability problems despite being faster than a floppy drive.[26] Disks cost about US$100 each, and the drive was not sufficient to run as the primary medium running the NeXTSTEP operating system.[26]

In 1988, Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates commented on the NeXTcube: "He [Steve Jobs] put a microprocessor in a box. So what?". He was later asked if he intended to develop for the NeXT platform, replying "Develop for it? I'll piss on it."[8] In February 1989, Sun Microsystems' Scott McNealy remarked of the NeXTcube: "it's the wrong operating system, the wrong processor, and the wrong price".[8]

In 1989, NeXT struck a deal for former Compaq reseller BusinessLand to sell NeXT computers in select markets nationwide. Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT's original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions.[27] BusinessLand founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months.[28]

In 1989, Canon invested $100 million in NeXT, giving it a 16.67% stake.[2] The first NeXT computers were released on the retail market in 1990, for US$9,999. NeXT’s original investor Ross Perot resigned from the board of directors in June 1991 to dedicate more time to Perot Systems, a Dallas-based systems integrator.[29]

Second generation

A NeXTstation with the original keyboard, mouse and the NeXT MegaPixel monitor

In 1990, NeXT released a second generation of workstations in an attempt to solve these problems, by replacing the magneto-optical drive with a 2.88 MB floppy drive. The new range comprised a revised NeXT Computer, renamed the NeXTcube, and a more conventional "pizza box" workstation, the NeXTstation. The new computers were cheaper and used the newer and faster 68040 processor. However, the 2.88 MB floppies were expensive and never took off as a successor to the 1.44 MB floppy. NeXT quickly realized this, and switched to using a CD-ROM drive. Color graphics options were also available for these models in the form of the NeXTstation Color and the NeXTdimension graphics processor board for the NeXTcube.

In 1992, NeXT launched "Turbo" variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation with a 33 MHz 68040 processor and maximum RAM capacity increased to 128 MB. NeXT's long-term aim was to migrate to a RISC architecture. The project was known as the NeXT RISC Workstation (NRW). Initially the NRW was to be based on the Motorola 88110 processor, but due to a lack of confidence in Motorola's commitment to the 88k architecture, it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s.[30][31] NeXT pre-produced some motherboards and enclosures but exited the hardware market before full production.

NeXT sold 20,000 computers in 1992 (NeXT counted upgrade motherboards on backorder as sales), a small number compared with their competitors. The company reported sales of $140 million in 1992, encouraging Canon to invest a further $30 million to keep the company afloat.[32]

Several developers used the NeXT platform to write significant programs. Tim Berners-Lee used a NeXT Computer in 1991 to create the first web browser and web server.[33] In the early 1990s, John Carmack used a NeXTcube to build two of his pioneering games: Wolfenstein 3D and Doom. Other commercial programs were released for NeXT computers, including the Lotus Improv spreadsheet program and Mathematica. The systems also came with a number of smaller applications built-in, including the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, Oxford Quotations, the complete works of William Shakespeare, and the Digital Librarian search engine to access them.

In total, 50,000 NeXT machines were sold.[34]

1993–1996: NeXT Software

File:NeXTSTEP desktop.jpg
NeXTSTEP, the operating system used by the NeXTcube and NeXTstation

NeXT started porting the NeXTSTEP operating system to the Intel platform in 1992. Work also began on replacing the 68000 series CPUs with the new PowerPC, a joint processor platform created by Apple, IBM and Motorola. By late 1993, the Intel port of NeXTSTEP was complete, and version 3.1, also known as NeXTSTEP 486, was released. Prior to the release of NeXTSTEP, Chrysler planned to buy 3,000 copies in 1992.[35]

NeXT withdraw from the hardware business in 1993 and the company was renamed NeXT Software, Inc. It laid off 300 of its 540 employees. NeXT negotiated to sell the hardware business including the Fremont factory to Canon.[1] Canon later pulled out of the deal. Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped along with all hardware production. CEO of Sun Microsystems Scott McNealy announced plans to invest $10 million in 1993, and use its software in future Sun systems.[36]

NeXTSTEP 3.x was later ported to PA-RISC[37] and SPARC-based platforms, for a total of four versions: NeXTSTEP/NeXT (for NeXT's 68k "black boxes"), NeXTSTEP/Intel, NeXTSTEP/PA-RISC and NeXTSTEP/SPARC. Although these ports were not widely used, NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as First Chicago NBD, Swiss Bank Corporation, and other organizations owing to its programming model.[38] It was also used by many federal agencies, such as Naval Research Laboratory, the National Security Agency, the Advanced Research Projects Agency, the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Reconnaissance Office.[39]

NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to create OpenStep, which was NeXTSTEP without the Mach-based Unix kernel. After dropping its hardware business, NeXT returned to selling a toolkit to run on other operating systems, in effect returing to its original business plan. New products based on OpenStep were released, including OpenStep Enterprise, a version for Microsoft's Windows NT. The company also launched WebObjects, a platform for building large-scale dynamic web applications. It became very successful, and quickly surpassed NeXTSTEP as NeXT's biggest money maker. Many large businesses including Dell, Disney and BBC used the WebObjects software.[40] Apple still uses it for the iTunes Store and most of its corporate website.[41]

1996: After NeXT

Apple Computer announced its intention to acquire NeXT on December 20, 1996.[3] Apple paid US$400 million in cash (returned to the initial investors) and 1.5 million Apple shares, which went to Steve Jobs.[3][42] The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the outdated Mac OS. Apple favoured this move over other options, which included continuing its in-house development of the Copland operating system purchasing BeOS. Jobs returned to Apple as a consultant in 1997, and then became interim CEO.[43] In 2000, he took the CEO position full-time.[44]

Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Steve Jobs restructured the company's board of directors. Over the next four years, the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the PowerPC architecture, and the Intel version and the OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were kept in sync. The operating systems were code-named Rhapsody,[45] while the toolkit for development on all platforms was named "Yellow Box". For backwards compatibility, Apple added the "Blue Box" to the Mac version of Rhapsody; this allowed existing Mac applications to be run in a self-contained environment.[46]

A consumer version was released as Mac OS X 10.0 in 2001. A server version was released soon after. The OpenStep toolkit was renamed from Yellow Box to Cocoa. Rhapsody's Blue Box was renamed Classic Environment. Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox that allowed existing Mac applications access to the environment without the constraints of Blue Box; this was named Carbon.[47][48] Some of NeXTSTEP's interface features were used in Mac OS X; these included the Dock, the Services menu, the Finder's "browser" view, the text system (NSText) and system-wide selectors for fonts and colors.

NeXTSTEP's processor-independent capabilities were completely retained in Mac OS X. Every version was compiled on both PowerPC and Intel x86 architectures, although only PowerPC versions were released until 2005. Apple publicly announced on June 6 2005 its plans to base future Macs on Intel processors instead of using PowerPCs, returning the NeXT software back to the platform to which it was ported in 1993.[49] Apple's Intel-based hardware transition was completed in August 2006.

Corporate culture and community

Jobs had felt stymied by Apple's corporate structure and was determined to avoid the bureaucratic infighting that had led to his resignation by creating a different corporate culture in terms of facilities, salaries and benefits. Jobs had experimented with some structural changes at Apple, but at NeXT he abandoned conventional corporate structures, instead making NeXT a community with members instead of employees.[50]

Jobs found luxurious office space in Palo Alto on Deer Creek Road,[51] occupying a glass and concrete building, which featured a staircase by I. M. Pei.[51] The first floor was outfitted with hardwood flooring and huge worktables where the workstations would be assembled. Jobs wanted to avoid the inventory errors that had partly caused his depature from Apple, so NeXT used just in time manufacturing (JIT).[51] The company would contract out for all of the major components, such as mainboards and cases, and have the finished components shipped to the first floor for assembly. The second floor was the office space, which had an open floor plan. The only enclosed rooms were Jobs' office and a few conference rooms.[51]

As NeXT grew, and it became clear that the just in time manufacturing model would not be practical, new office space was rented on the San Francisco Bay in Redwood City.[50] The space, designed by I. M. Pei, was dominated by a floating staircase with no visible supports. The open floor plan was retained, although it was now very luxurious, including $10,000 sofas and Ansel Adams prints.[50]

There were only two different salaries at NeXT until the early 1990s.[50] Team members who joined before 1986 were paid $75,000 while those who joined afterwards were paid $50,000. This caused a few awkward situations where managers were paid less than their employees. Employees were given performance reviews and raises every six months because of the spartan salary plans. To foster openness, all employees had full access to the payrolls, although few employees ever took advantage of the privilege.[50] NeXT's health insurance plan offered benefits to not only married couples, but unmarried couples and same-sex couples.[50] The payroll schedule was also very different from other companies in Silicon Valley at the time. Instead of getting paid twice a month at the end of the pay period, employees would get paid once a month in advance.[52]

The first issue of NeXTWORLD magazine debuted in 1991. It was published in San Francisco by Integrated Media, and edited by Michael Miley and later Dan Ruby. It was the first and only mainstream periodical to discuss NeXT computers, operating system and software. Publication ceased in 1994 after four volumes were released.[53] A NeXTWORLD Expo followed as a developer conference, held in 1991 and 1992 at the San Francisco Civic Center and in 1993 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco, with Steve Jobs as the keynote speaker.[54]

Impact on the computer industry

Despite NeXT's lack of commercial success, it had a large impact on the computer industry. Object oriented programming and user interfaces became more common after the release of the NeXTcube and NeXTSTEP in 1988.[55] Other companies started work to duplicate the object oriented system of the NeXT. Apple started the Taligent project in 1989, with the goal of building a NeXT-like operating system for the Macintosh, with collaboration from both HP and IBM.[56]

Microsoft began its Cairo project, officially announced in 1991, which was to bring an object oriented user interface to a consumer version of Windows NT. The project was ultimately abandoned with some elements rolled into other products. By 1994, Microsoft and NeXT began collaborating on a Windows NT-port of OpenStep[57] which was never released.

WebObjects never became very popular because of its initial high price of US$50,000,[58] but remains a prominent early example of a web server based on dynamic page generation rather than static content. WebObjects is now bundled with Mac OS X Server and Xcode.[58]

Notes

  1. ^ a b "NeXT Inc. to Drop Hardware 300 losing jobs in strategy shift". The San Francisco Chronicle. February 9, 1993. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  2. ^ a b McCarthy, Vance (July 17, 1993). "Steve Jobs just says no". Fortune. General Reference Center Gold. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ a b c Apple Computer (December 20 1996). "Apple Computer, Inc. Agrees to Acquire NeXT Software Inc". Retrieved 2007-01-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  4. ^ Apple Computer (February 7 1997). "Apple Computer, Inc. Finalizes Acquisition of NeXT Software Inc" (Press release). Retrieved 2007-01-04. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  5. ^ Stross, Randall (1993). Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing. Athenium. pp. pg. 56. ISBN 0-689-12135-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  6. ^ Stross 1993, pg. 67
  7. ^ Morrison, Ann (February 20, 1984). "NeXT, Microsoft tackle objects: NT to gain OpenStep port". Fortune. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ a b c d e f Stross 1993, pg. 72 Cite error: The named reference "nextbigthing" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ Shannon, Victoria (May 22, 2006), "Apple losing its polish in France", International Herald Tribune, pp. pg. 11 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help).
  10. ^ Fuerst, Irene (March 15, 1985), "Apple's new Mac push; can Apple Computer succeed in wooing big companies with its Macintosh Office?", Datamation Magazine, pp. pg. 42 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help).
  11. ^ Rose, Frank (1990). West of Eden. Viking. pp. pg. 193. ISBN 0-670-81278-1. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  12. ^ Rose 1990, pg. 227
  13. ^ Rose 1990, pg. 291
  14. ^ Young, Jeffrey S. (2005). iCon: Steve Jobs. John Wiley & Sons. pp. pg. 118. ISBN 0-471-72083-6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Spector, G (Sept 24, 1985), "Apple's Jobs Starts New Firm, Targets Education Market", PC Week, pp. pg. 109 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Deutschman, Alan (200). Second Coming of Steve Jobs. Broadway Books. pp. pg. 64. ISBN 0-7679-0432-X. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  17. ^ Deutschman pg. 44
  18. ^ a b Heller, Steven (2000). Paul Rand. Phaidon Press. pp. pg. 256. ISBN 0-7148-3994-9. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Young, Jeffrey S. (2005). iCon: Steve Jobs. John Wiley & Sons. pp. pg. 134. ISBN 0-471-72083-6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Bonnera, Paul (February 1989), "The heart of a new machine (frogdesign for NeXT computer)", PC/Computing Magazine, pp. pg. 144 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  21. ^ Takahashi, Ken (August 29, 1989), "Motorola making chips in Japan", Newsbytes {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Thompson, Tom (1988). "The NeXT Computer". Byte. Vol. 13, no. 12. pp. pg. 158–175. {{cite magazine}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. ^ Standefer, Robert (2004). "Evolution of Mac OS X". Macintosh Switcher's Guide. Wordware Publishing. pp. pg. 33. ISBN 1-55622-045-6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  24. ^ White, David W. (December 1989), "Dell System 325 (Hardware Review)", The Local Area Network Magazine, pp. pg. 132 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  25. ^ Krasnoff, Barbara (December 1989), "Buyer's guide: benchmarks", Personal Computing, pp. pg. 170 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  26. ^ a b c d Rawles, Richard (September 19, 1989), "Developers split over optical drive (NeXT Inc's 256Mbyte erasable magneto-optical drive)", MacWEEK, pp. pg. 3.n33 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ "Businessland Deal Seen for Next Inc.". Reuters. March 25, 1989. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in |title= (help)
  28. ^ Shaffer, Richard (July 1989). "NeXT means business now". Personal Computing. General Reference Center Gold.
  29. ^ "NeXT may expand two-man board", PC Week, pp. pg. 125, December 9, 1991 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ^ Garfinkel, Simson L. (March 1993). "Hardware was great while it lasted". NeXTWORLD. Retrieved 2007-04-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  31. ^ Lavin, Dan (March 1993). "Canon to buy NeXT factory, design center". NeXTWORLD. Retrieved 2007-04-30.
  32. ^ Young, Jeffrey S. (2005). iCon: Steve Jobs. John Wiley & Sons. pp. pg. 200. ISBN 0-471-72083-6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "The WorldWideWeb browser" (HTML). World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
  34. ^ "NeXT Fans Give Up the Ghost". Wired News. 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
  35. ^ "Next Computer Close To a Deal With Chrysler". The San Francisco Chronicle. September 8, 1992. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  36. ^ "Sun invests in Next, which will license NextStep OS for Sparc". InfoWorld. General Reference Center Gold. November 29, 1993. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ^ Sherman, Lee (2004), "First NeXT RISC Workstation", NeXTWORLD, retrieved 2008-04-14
  38. ^ "NeXTSTEP: NeXT announces new release of NeXTSTEP & NeXTSTEP Developer. (NeXTSTEP 3.2 and NeXTSTEP Developer 3.2)", EDGE: Work-Group Computing Report, pp. pg. 40, October 25, 1993 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ^ McCarthy, Shawn P. (March 6, 1995), "Next's OS finally is maturing. (NextStep Unix operating system)", Government Computer News, pp. pg. 46 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ Evans, Johnny (June 16, 2005). "Apple releases WebObjects as a free application" (HTML). MacCentral. Retrieved 2008-04-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ Dalrymple, Jim (June 2, 2003). "Xserves power iTunes Music Store, 'America 24/7'" (HTML). Macworld. Retrieved 2007-01-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ "Apple files with SEC for Jobs to sell 1.5 million shares", The Seattle Times, June 19, 1997 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  43. ^ "Apple May Press Jobs To Be Or Not To Be CEO", Newsbytes, March 24, 1998 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ^ Davis, Jim (January 5 2000). "Jobs takes Apple CEO job full time" (HTML). CNet. Retrieved 2007-01-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  45. ^ Britton, Arlen (August 6 1997). "What's NeXT?" (HTML). MacObserver. Retrieved 2007-01-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  46. ^ Thompson, Tom (April 1997), "Rhapsody with blue (Apple's next-generation operating system code-named Rhapsody)", Byte, pp. pg. 26 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  47. ^ Sellers, Dennis (November 2000), "OS X III: finally, a first-class OS", Computer User, pp. pg. 66 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  48. ^ "Mac OS X Takes Macintosh to New Level", eWeek, July 15, 2002 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  49. ^ Apple Computer (June 6 2005). "Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006". Retrieved 2007-01-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  50. ^ a b c d e f Stross, Randall (1993). Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing. Athenium. pp. pg. 80. ISBN 0-689-12135-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  51. ^ a b c d Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0. No Starch Press. pp. pg. 323. ISBN 1-59327-010-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  52. ^ Stross, Randall E. (1993). Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing. Maxwell Macmillan International. pp. pg. 289–374. ISBN 9780689121357. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  53. ^ "Serial Archive Listings for NeXTWORLD". The Online Books Page. University of Pennsylvania Library. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
  54. ^ NextStep users seek safety in big numbers (January 27, 1992). "NeXT makes play for corporate market". PC Week. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  55. ^ Smith, Carrie (May 1994). "NeXT means business now". Wall Street & Technology. General Reference Center Gold.
  56. ^ Semich, J. William (March 15, 1994), "Taligent (Apple, IBM and HP's joint object-oriented operating system)", Datamation Magazine, pp. pg. 34 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  57. ^ Smith, Carrie (November 7, 1994). "NeXT, Microsoft tackle objects: NT to gain OpenStep port". PC Week. General Reference Center Gold. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  58. ^ a b Stewart, Graham (2006). "Happy Birthday: WebObjects at 10". MacObserver. Retrieved 2007-01-06.

References

  • Deutschman, Alan (2001). The Second Coming of Steve Jobs. Broadway. ISBN 0-7679-0433-8.
  • Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-010-0.
  • Malone, Michael (1999). Infinite Loop. Currency. ISBN 0-385-48684-7.
  • Stross, Randall E. (1993). Steve Jobs & the NeXT Big Thing. Scribner. ISBN 0-689-12135-0.
  • Young, Jeffrey S. (2005). iCon: Steve Jobs. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-72083-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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