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Chandragupta Maurya
Mauryan Emperor
File:ChandraguptaStamp.jpg
Indian postage stamp depicting Chandragupta Maurya
Reign322 BC-298 BC
SuccessorBindusara
HouseMauryan dynasty
MotherMura

Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य), sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c. 340 BC, ruled c. 320[1] – 298 BC[2]), was the founder of the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta succeeded in bringing together most of the Indian subcontinent. As a result, Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and the first genuine emperor of India.[3] In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokuptos (Σανδρόκυπτος), Sandrokottos (Σανδρόκοττος) or Androcottus.[4]

Prior to Chandragupta's consolidation of power, small regional kingdoms dominated the northwestern sub-continent, while the Nanda Empire dominated the Gangetic plain.[5] After Chandragupta's conquests, the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and Assam[6] in the East, to Afghanistan and Balochistan in the West, to Kashmir(North-West) and Nepal(North-East) [7] in the North, and to the Deccan Plateau in the South.[8]

His achievements, which ranged from defeating Alexander's Macedonian satrapies and conquering the Nanda Empire by the time he was only about 20 years old, to defeating Seleucus Nicator and establishing centralized rule throughout Southern Asia, remain some of the most celebrated in Indian history. Over two thousand years later, the accomplishments of Chandragupta and his successors, including Asoka the Great, are objects of great study in the annals of South Asian and world history.

While many Indian historians hold the view that Chandragupta was an illegitimate child of the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha in eastern India, born to a Nanda prince and a maid named "Mura",[9] other later literary traditions imply that Chandragupta may have been raised by peacock-tamers (Sanskrit: Mayura-Poshaka), which earned him the Maurya epithet. Both the Buddhist as well as Jaina traditions testify to the supposed connection between the Moriya (Maurya) and Mora or Mayura (Peacock).[10] Yet there are other literary traditions according to which Chandragupta belonged to Moriyas, a Kshatriya (warrior) clan of a little ancient republic of Pippalivana located between Rummindei in the Nepali Terai and Kasia in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

There are differing theories regarding Chandragupta Maurya’s origins. Some regard Chandragupta to have originated from Magadha, possibly as the son of a Nanda prince and a maid named "Mura".[9][11] A kshatriya people known as the "Mauryas" who had received the relics of the Buddha are also mentioned in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya. Then the Moriyas of Pipphalivana came to know that at Kusinara the Blessed One had passed away. And they sent a message to the Mallas of Kusinara, saying: "The Blessed One was of the warrior caste, and we are too. We are worthy to receive a portion of the relics of the Blessed One. We will erect a stupa over the relics of the Blessed One and hold a festival in their honor."

Others claim that the Mauryas were the Muras or rather Mors, and another view of a Jat origin of Indo-Scythian lineage has been proposed.[12][13][14] Another school of thought, including scholars such as B. M. Barua,[15] Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr D. B. Spooner [16], Dr H. C. Seth [17], Dr Hari Ram Gupta [18], Dr Ranajit Pal[19] and Kirpal Singh have connected Chandragupta to Gandhara (or Kamboja) in modern day Pakistan. Based on interpretations of Plutarch and Appian's writings, these scholars assert that Chandragupta Maurya may have belonged to the north-west frontier region, possibly to the Assakenoi or Ashvaka (q.v.) Kshatriya clan of Swat/Kunar valley ( modern Koh-I-Mor or Mer-coh — the Meros of the classical writings; probably Meru of Sanskrit texts and Mor and Mer in Prakritic) [20] [21] [22]. As Chandragupta belonged to this region (called Mor), the dynasty founded by him was called Moriya or Maurya [23] [24].

Although no archaeological relics of Chandragupta Maurya are known from Patna or anywhere else, Dr. Ranajit Pal maintains[1] that the two Laghman Aramaic inscriptions belong to Chandragupta Maurya, not Ashoka. Accoding to him Orontobates who fought against Alexander the Great was Chandragupta. In many manuscripts of the Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa, Rantivarma takes the place of Chandragupta which shows that this was another name of Chandragupta like Sashigupta. Rantivarma is the same as Orontobates. Dr. Pal also suggests that Andragoras whose coins depict the famous Sun's quadriga was Androcottos or Chandragupta. From Diodorus' report it can be seen that Tiridates who handed over the fabulous treasury of Persepolis to Alexander, was in fact Chandragupta[2]. Dr. Pal also holds that Mithridates–II who, according to Diodorus, rose to the throne of Pontus in 337 B.C. (Diod. xvi. 90.) was Chandragupta. The Ashvakas were a section of the Kambojas, who were exclusively engaged in horse-culture and were noted for providing mercenary cavalry. [25] [26].

Dr. Ranajit Pal makes the dramatic suggestion [3] that Alexander the Great knew Orontobates intimately as there was a princess between the two. In his youth Alexander wanted to marry Ada II, the daughter of Pixodarus but this was negated by his father. Incidentally Orontobates married a daughter of Pixodarus, who was probably the same as Ada II. This makes it very likely that the relation between the two was far more complex than what Justin or even Plutarch knew.

Prof. Robin Lane Fox has written that Sisines the Persian who is said to have met Alexander in Cilicia was in fact an ally of the latter. Dr. Ranajit Pal suggests that Sisines was the same as Sisicottus or Sashigupta. He also makes the startling suggestion that Diodotus of Erythrae was the same as Chandragupta who had joined hands with the Generals to poison Alexander[4].

Early life

Very little is known about Chandragupta's youth. Much of what is known about his youth is gathered from later classical Sanskrit literature, as well as classical Greek and Latin sources which refer to Chandragupta by the names "Sandracottos" or "Andracottus". He was paragon for next rulers.

According to traditional accounts, Chanakya, a teacher at Takshila University at the time of Alexander's invasion, found the boy Chandragupta from the Magadha kingdom in eastern India. As the story goes, Chandragupta was playing as a king with his friends and was giving justice to another boy playing criminal. Chanakya saw this and was impressed with Chandragupta's sense of justice. Chanakya asked his mother for him and then gave him education in Takshila. It is also believed that Chandragupta's lineage was born of a maid (dasi) of the King. His mother's name was "Mura", hence the name of his dynasty was later known as Maurya.[9]

Plutarch reports that he met with Alexander the Great, probably around Takshila in the northwest, and that he viewed the ruling Nanda Empire in a negative light:

"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth."

— Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Life of Alexander 62.9

According to this tradition, the encounter would have happened around 326 BC, suggesting a birth date for Chandragupta around 340 BC.

Junianus Justinus (Justin) describes the humble origins of Chandragupta, and explains how he later led a popular uprising against the Nanda king:

"He was of humble origin, but was pushing to acquiring the throne by the superior power of the mind. When after having offended the king of Nanda by his insolence, he was condemned to death by the king, he was saved by the speed of his own feet... He gathered bandits and invited Indians to a change of rule."

— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

Foundation of the Maurya Empire

Further information: Magadha and Maurya Empire
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BC.

At the time of Alexander's invasion, Chanakya was a teacher at Taxila University. The king of Taxila and Gandhara, Ambhi (also known as Taxiles), made a treaty with Alexander and did not fight against him. Chanakya saw the foreign invasion against the Indian culture and sought help from other kings to unite and fight Alexander. Porus (Parvateshwar), a king of Punjab, was the only local king who was able to challenge Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes River, but was defeated.

Chanakya then went to Magadha further east to seek the help of Dhana Nanda, who ruled a vast Nanda Empire which extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to eastern Punjab in the west,[27] but he denied any such help. After this incident, Chanakya began sowing the seeds of building an empire that could protect Indian territories from foreign invasion into his disciple Chandragupta.

Chanakya

Main article: Chanakya
File:India CG3.jpg
The court of Chandragupta Maurya, especially Chanakya, played an important part in the foundation and governance of the Maurya dynasty.

Chandragupta's adviser or prime minister[28] Chanakya, who is also known as Kautilya and was the author of the Arthashastra, is regarded as the architect of Chandragupta's early rise to power. Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya, began laying the foundation of the Maurya Empire. In all the forms of the Chanakya legend,[29] he is thrown out of the Nanda court by the king, whereupon he swears revenge. While in Magadha, Chanakya by chance met Chandragupta in whom he spotted great military and executive abilities. Chanakya was impressed by the prince's personality and intelligence, and immediately took the young boy under his wing to fulfill his silent vow.

Depending upon the interpretation of Justin's accounts, the second version of the above story is that Chandragupta had also accompanied Chanakya to Pataliputra and himself was insulted by Dhana Nanda (Nandrum of Justin). If this version of Justin's accounts is accepted, then the view that Chanakya had purchased Chandragupta from Bihar, on his way back to Taxila, becomes irrelevant. The shrewd Chanakya had trained Chandragupta under his expert guidance and together they planned the conquest of the Nanda Empire.

Nanda army

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BC.
Main article: Nanda Dynasty

According to Plutarch, at the time of Alexander's Battle of the Hydaspes River, the size of the Nanda Empire's army further east numbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 war elephants, which was discouraging for Alexander's men and stayed their further progress into India:

But this last combat with Porus took off the edge of the Macedonians' courage, and stayed their further progress into India. For having found it hard enough to defeat an enemy who brought but twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse into the field, they thought they had reason to oppose Alexander's design of leading them on to pass the Ganges, too, which they were told was thirty-two furlongs broad and a fathom deep, and the banks on the further side covered with multitudes of enemies. For they were told the kings of the Gandaritans and Praesians expected them there with eighty thousand horse, two hundred thousand foot, eight thousand armed chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. Nor was this a mere vain report, spread to discourage them."

— Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Alexander 62.1-4

In order to defeat the powerful Nanda army, Chandragupta needed to raise a formidable army of his own.[27]

Conquest of Macedonian territories in India

Chandragupta defeated the remaining Macedonian satrapies in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent circa 317 BC.

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Chandragupta, turned his attention to Northwestern India (modern Pakistan), where he defeated the satrapies (described as "prefects" in classical Western sources) left in place by Alexander (according to Justin), and may have assassinated two of his governors, Nicanor and Philip.[3][27] The satrapies he fought may have included Eudemus, ruler in western Punjab until his departure in 317 BC; and Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BC. The Roman historian Justin described how Sandrocottus (Greek version of Chandragupta's name) conquered the northwest:

"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination."

— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.12-13

"He was of humble origin, but was pushing to acquiring the throne by the superior power of the mind. When after having offensed the king of Nanda by his insolence, he was condemned to death by the king, he was saved by the speed of his own feet"

— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory."

— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.19

Having consolidated power in the northwest, Chandragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Empire.

Conquest of the Nanda Empire

Further information: Nanda Dynasty
Chandragupta's empire when he founded it circa 320 BC, by the time he was about 20 years old.

Chanakya had trained Chandragupta under his guidance and together they planned the destruction of Dhana Nanda. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus.[30]

It is noted in the Chandraguptakatha that the protagonist and Chanakya were initially rebuffed by the Nanda forces. Regardless, in the ensuing war, Chandragupta faced off against Bhadrasala – commander of Dhana Nanda's armies. He was eventually able to defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana Nanda in a series of battles, ending with the siege of the capital city Kusumapura[27] and the conquest of the Nanda Empire around 321 BC,[27] thus founding the powerful Maurya Empire in Northern India by the time he was about 20 years old.

Expansion

By the time he was only about 20 years old, Chandragupta, who had succeeded in defeating the Macedonian satrapies in India and conquering the Nanda Empire, had founded a vast empire that extended from Bengal and Assam in the east, to the Indus Valley in the west, which he would further expand in later years.

Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories

Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.
Chandragupta extended the borders of his empire towards Seleucid Persia after his conflict with Seleucus circa 305 BC.

Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian satrap of Alexander, reconquered most of Alexander's former empire and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BC he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta:

"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus."

— Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55

The exact details of engagement are not known. As noted by scholars such as R. C. Majumdar[9] and D. D. Kosambi, Seleucus appears to have fared poorly, having ceded large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. Due to his defeat, Seleucus surrendered Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae, and Aria.

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Persia.[31][32] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan.

In exchange for this territory, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. A matrimonial alliance was also agreed upon (called Epigamia in ancient sources, meaning either the recognition of marriage between Indians and Greeks, or a dynastic alliance):

"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship."

"After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus."

— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

As there are no records of an Indian princess in the abundant classical literature on the Seleucids, it is generally thought that the alliance went the other way around, and that a Seleucid princess may have been bethrothed to the Maurya Dynasty.[9][33][34] In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (Modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[35]

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:

"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love."

— Athenaeus of Naucratis

Southern conquests

The extent of the Maurya Empire after Chandragupta's southern conquests circa 300 BC.

After annexing Seleucus' eastern Persian provinces, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern parts of Southern Asia, from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Chandragupta then began expanding his empire further south beyond the barrier of the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau.[27] By the time his conquests were complete, Chandragupta succeeded in unifying most of Southern Asia. Megasthenes later recorded the size of Chandragupta's acquired army as 400,000 soldiers, according to Strabo:

"Megasthenes was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of 400,000 men"

— Strabo, Geographica, 15.1.53

On the other hand, Pliny, who also drew from Megasthenes' work, gives even larger numbers of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants:

"But the Prasii surpass in power and glory every other people, not only in this quarter, but one may say in all India, their capital Palibothra, a very large and wealthy city, after which some call the people itself the Palibothri,--nay even the whole tract along the Ganges. Their king has in his pay a standing army of 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants: whence may be formed some conjecture as to the vastness of his resources."

— Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4

Jainism

The Digambaras believe that Chandragupta gave up his throne towards the end of his life and became an ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahu Swami, migrating south with them and ending his days in self-starvation at Shravanabelagola, in present day Karnataka; no hard evidence regarding this exists, though fifth-century inscriptions in the area support the concept of a larger southern migration around that time.[36] A small temple marks the cave (called Bhadrabahu Cave) where he is said to have died by fasting.

Successors

Main article: Maurya Empire

Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne to his son, Bindusara, who became the new Mauryan Emperor. Bindusara would later become the father of Ashoka the Great, who was one of the most influential kings in history due to his important role in the history of Buddhism.

Chandragupta Maurya was included as a Great General in the Warlords expansion to the Civilization IV video game, which often includes real historical people in its gameplay.

See also

References

  1. ^ Kulke, Hermann (1998) [1986]. A History of India (Third Edition ed.). London: Routledge. p. 59. ISBN 0-415-15481-2. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Kulke and Rothermund 1998:62
  3. ^ a b Boesche, Roger (2003). "Kautilya's Arthaśāstra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India". The Journal of Military History. 67 (1): 9–37. ISSN 0899-3718. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ William Smith (ed), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, Vol 3 p. 705-6
  5. ^ Shastri, Nilakantha (1967). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 26. ISBN 81-208-0465-1. {{cite book}}: Text "Second Edition" ignored (help)
  6. ^ Bruce Vaughn (2004). "Indian Geopolitics, the United States and Evolving Correlates of Power in Asia", Geopolitics 9 (2), p. 440-459.
  7. ^ H. Goetz (1955). "Early Indian Sculptures from Nepal", Artibus Asiae 18 (1), p. 61-74.
  8. ^ The Span of the Mauryan Empire, Kamat's Potpurri, accessed 9 September 2007
  9. ^ a b c d e Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804368.
  10. ^ Parisishtaparvan, p 56, VIII239f
  11. ^ Biographies: Chandragupta Maurya
  12. ^ Jats the Ancient rulers, Dahinam Publishers, Sonipat, Haryana, by B. S. Dahiya I.R.S
  13. ^ Ram Swarup Joon, History of the Jats, Rohtak, India (1938, 1967)
  14. ^ Dehiya on the Jat Iranic identity of Mauryas:History of Iran
  15. ^ B. M. Barua. Indian Culture, vol. X, p. 34.
  16. ^ Journnal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1915, (Pt.II), pp 406, 416-17, Dr D.B. Spooner.
  17. ^ Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India?, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, p 158-165, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
  18. ^ Was Chandragupta Maurya a Punjabi?, Punjab History Conference, Second Session, Oct 28-30, 1966, Punjabi University Patiala, p 32-35, Dr H. R. Gupta.
  19. ^ "Non-Jonesian Indology and Alexander", New Delhi, 2002.
  20. ^ Invasion of Alexander, 2nd Ed, p 112, Dr J. W. McCrindle.
  21. ^ They Taught Lessons to Kings, Gur Rattan Pal Singh; Article in Sunday Tribune, January 10, 1999; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 149-154, Kirpal Singh.
  22. ^ For Dr H. C. Seth's views, Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India? consult: (1) Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, p 158-165, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute;(2) Also see: The Indian Review , 1936, p 814, edited by G.A. Natesan; (3) "Sasigupta and Chandragupta", Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 361.
  23. ^ Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India?, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, p 164, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Dr H. C. Seth; The Indian Review, 1937, p 814, Ed G.A. Natesan - India.
  24. ^ Was Chandragupta Maurya a Punjabi?, Punjab History Conference, Second Session, Oct 28-30, 1966, Punjabi University Patiala, p 33, Dr H. R. Gupta; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 150, Kirpal Singh.
  25. ^ For Ashvakas being sections of the Kambojas, see: Historie du bouddhisme Indien, p110, Dr E. Lammotte; East and West, 1950, pp 28, 149, 158, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti.
  26. ^ Other refs on Ashvakas = Kambojas are: Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, (See also Commentary, op. cit., p 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash; History of Punjab, Vol I, 19997, p 225, (Editors) Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Buareau, Punjabi University Patiala; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi; Kambojas through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218-19, Kirpal Singh; Note: Dr J. W. McCrindle says that the modern Afghanistan -- the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiun Tsang was ancient Kamboja, and name Afghan evidently derives from the Ashavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian (Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. W. McCrindle). Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasios) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. Other scholars like Dr R. C. Majumdar, Romila Thapar etc also take Ashvakas as clans of the Kambojkas.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Radha Kumud Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 4th ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988 [1966]), 31, 28–33.
  28. ^ Boesche, Roger (2003). "Kautilya's Arthaśāstra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India". The Journal of Military History. 67 (1): 9–37. ISSN 0899-3718. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) "Kautilya [is] sometimes called a Chancellor or Prime Minister to Chandragupta, something like a Bismarck…"
  29. ^ Trautmann, Thomas R. (1971). "The Cāṇakya-Candragupta-Kathā". Kauṭilya and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
  30. ^ John Marshall Taxila, p. 18, and al.
  31. ^ Vincent Arthur Smith (1998). Asoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120613031.
  32. ^ Walter Eugene Clark (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology", Classical Philology 14 (4), p. 297-313.
  33. ^ W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 60, p. 84-94.
  34. ^ Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham Books. ISBN 1592400531.
  35. ^ Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21
  36. ^ Digambaras, Overview of World Religions, accessed 9 September 2007

Further reading

  • Kosambi, D.D. An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1985
  • Bhargava, P.L. Chandragupta Maurya, New Delhi:D.K. Printworld, 160 pp., 2002.
  • Habib, Irfan. and Jha, Vivekanand. Mauryan India: A People's History of India,New Delhi:Tulika Books, 2004; 189pp
  • Vishakadatta, R.S. Pandit.Mudraraksasa (The Signet Ring of Rakshasa), New Delhi:Global Vision Publishing House, 2004, ISBN 81-8220-009-1, edited by Ramesh Chandra
  • Swearer, Donald. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia (Chambersburg, Pennsylvania : Anima Books, 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4
  • Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, [1967] c1952) ISBN 0-89684-167-7
  • Bongard-Levin, G. M. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May 1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5
  • Chand Chauhan, Gian. Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650 (Munshiram Manoharlal January 2004) ISBN 81-215-1028-7
  • Keay, John. India: A History (Grove Press; 1 Grove Pr edition May 10, 2001) ISBN 0-8021-3797-0
  • Radha Kumud Mukherji. Chandragupta Maurya aur Uska Kaal (Rajkamal Prakashan, Re Print 1990) ISBN-81-7171-088-1
Preceded by Mauryan Emperor
322-298 BC 		Succeeded by
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