Jump to content

European Union

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 16@r (talk | contribs) at 22:17, 16 June 2008 (→Intro: link Irish referendum of June 2008). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"EU" redirects here. For other uses, see EU (disambiguation).
European Union
Motto: [In varietate concordia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)  (Latin)
"United in diversity"[1]
Anthem: Ode to Joy[1]  (orchestral)
Political centresBrussels
Strasbourg
Luxembourg
Official languages
Demonym(s)European
Member States
GovernmentSui generis
José Manuel Barroso (EPP)
Hans-Gert Pöttering (EPP)
• Council
Slovenia
Janez Janša (EPP)
Formation
18 April 1951
25 March 1957
7 February 1992
Area
• Total
4,324,782 km2 (1,669,808 sq mi) (7th¹)
• Water (%)
3.08
Population
• 2008 estimate
497,198,740 (3rd¹)
• Density
114/km2 (295.3/sq mi) (69th¹)
GDP (PPP)2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total
$14.712 trillion (1st¹)
• Per capita
$28,213 (14th¹)
GDP (nominal)2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total
$16.830 trillion (1st¹)
• Per capita
$33,482 (13th¹)
Currency
Time zoneUTC+0 to +2
• Summer (DST)
UTC+1 to +3
Internet TLD.eu
  1. If listed among entities with traditional nation state status.[2]

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic community of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Europe. It was established in 1993 by the Maastricht Treaty, adding new areas of policy to the existing European Community. With almost 500 million citizens, the EU combined generates an estimated 30% share of the world's nominal gross domestic product (US$16.8 trillion in 2007).[2]

The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital.[3] It maintains a common trade policy, agricultural and fisheries policies, and a regional development policy.[4] Fifteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro. It has developed a role in foreign policy, representing its members in the World Trade Organization, at G8 summits and at the United Nations. Twenty-one EU countries are members of NATO. It has developed a role in justice and home affairs, including the abolition of passport control between many member states under the Schengen Agreement.[5]

EU operation is a hybrid of intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. In certain areas it depends upon agreement between the member states. However, it also has supranational bodies, able to make decisions without the agreement of members. Important institutions and bodies of the EU include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank. EU citizens elect the Parliament every five years.

The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community formed among six countries in 1951 and the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Since then the EU has grown in size through the accession of new member states and has increased its powers by the addition of new policy areas to its remit. The Treaty of Lisbon was signed in December 2007 with the intention to amend the existing treaties to update the political and legal structure of the union. The ratification process was scheduled to be accomplished by the end of 2008; however the rejection of this treaty in the Irish referendum of June 2008 has left its future unresolved.

History

Main article: History of the European Union

European Coal and Steel Community

Further information: Pax Europea, End of World War II in Europe, and European Coal and Steel Community
Robert Schuman proposing the Coal and Steel Community in 1950

The political climate after the end of World War II favoured unity in Western Europe, seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent.[6] One of the first successful proposals for European cooperation came in 1951 with the European Coal and Steel Community. This had the aim of bringing together control of the coal and steel industries of its member states, principally France and West Germany. This was with the aim that war between them would not then be possible, as coal and steel were the principal resources for waging war. The Community's founders declared it "a first step in the federation of Europe", with the hope that this would enable Europe to pursue the development of Africa.[7] The other founding members were Italy, and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.[8]

European Communities

Further information: Treaty of Rome and European Community

Two additional communities were created in 1957: the European Economic Community (EEC) establishing a customs union, and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear energy.[8] In 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities, although more commonly just as the European Community (EC).[9]

File:Rometreaty.jpg
The 1957 Rome Treaty created the European Economic Community.

In 1973 the European Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.[10] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time but a referendum rejected membership and so it remained outside.

The first direct, democratic elections of members of the European Parliament were held in 1979.[11] They were the first European elections to be held, allowing citizens to elect 410 MEPs to the European Parliament, and also the first international election in history.

Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.[12] The Schengen Agreement in 1985 created largely open borders without passport controls between most member states.[13] In 1986 the European flag began to be used and leaders signed the Single European Act. This revised the way community decision making operated to take account of its greater membership, aimed to further reduce trade barriers and introduce greater European Political Cooperation.

European Union

Further information: Post-Cold War era and Maastricht Treaty
The Iron Curtain's fall enabled eastward enlargement. (Berlin Wall)

In 1990 after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a newly united Germany.[14] With enlargement toward eastern Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the European Union were agreed.

The Maastricht Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993.[15] It introduced the term European Union and established its three pillar structure. The term European Community would now refer to the first pillar subsuming the former European Communities, i.e., the policies that are handled supranationally. The second and third pillar concern foreign policy and home affairs, with a rather intergovernmental level of co-operation. In colloquial language, the term European Union simply replaced the term European Community. Its remnant as the name of the first pillar is to be abolished along with the pillar system once the Treaty of Lisbon comes into effect.

Austria, Sweden and Finland joined in 1995. The Amsterdam Treaty in 1997 amended the Maastricht treaty in areas such as democracy and foreign policy. The Amsterdam treaty was followed by the Treaty of Nice in 2001, which revised the Rome and Maastricht treaties to allow the EU to cope with further enlargement to the east.

In 2002, twelve member states adopted the euro as a single currency. Since then, the Eurozone has increased to encompassing fifteen countries. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when ten new countries, most of which former parts of the Eastern Bloc, joined the Union.[16] Three years later, two more joined.[16]

A treaty establishing a constitution for the EU was signed in Rome in 2004, intended to replace all previous treaties with a single document. However, it never completed ratification after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referenda. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty, that would amend rather than replace the existing treaties. This treaty was signed on 13 December 2007 in Lisbon and is known as the Lisbon treaty.[17] It will come in effect in January 2009 if secretely ratified by that date. In June 2008, Ireland has voted no in its national referendum on the EU constitution as re-drafted in Lisbon.

Member states

Main articles: European Union member state and Enlargement of the European Union
The member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Only territories in and around Europe are shown.
This box:

The European Union is composed of 27 independent sovereign countries which are known as member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.[18]

There are three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey; the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.[19] Kosovo has been granted similar status.[20]

To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy which respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the EU; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfillment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.[21] The current framework does not specify how a country could exit the Union (although Greenland withdrew in 1985), but the proposed Treaty of Lisbon contains a formal procedure for withdrawing.

Four Western European countries that have chosen not to join the EU have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[22][23] The relationships of the European microstates Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City include the use of the euro and other co-operation.[24]

Geography

Main article: Geography of the European Union
Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU.

The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with some exceptions outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as parts of the continent are outside the EU, such as Iceland, Switzerland, Norway, and European Russia. Some parts of member countries are not part of the EU, despite forming part of the European continent (for example the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands). Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (such as Greenland, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles, and all the non-European territories associated with the United Kingdom). Some overseas territories are part of the EU even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Azores, the Canary Islands, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Madeira, Martinique, Réunion, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint Martin.[25][26][27]

The EU's climate is influenced by its 69,000 km coastline. (Crete)

The EU's member states cover a combined area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi).[28] The total territory of the EU is larger than all but six countries and its highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4807 metres above sea level. The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 69,342 kilometres (43,087 mi) long. The EU has the world's second longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states share land borders with 21 non-member states for a total of 12,441 kilometres (7,730 mi), the fifth longest border in the world.[29][30][31]

Including the overseas territories of member states, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. In practice, the majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Eastern Europe).[32]

Governance

Main article: Institutions of the European Union
European CommunityCommon Foreign and Security PolicyPolice and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters
The three pillars constituting the European Union (clickable)

The EU is based on a series of treaties which have built up the current structure by successive additions and amendments.[33] The treaties define the broad policy goals of the organisation and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals, including the ability to enact legislation[34] which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants (the principle of 'direct effect').[35] National courts enforce the EU treaties and the laws enacted under them, as one of the conditions of membership. In the case of a conflict where a law stemming from EU legislation conflicts with another national law, the EU law is considered to take precedence (principle of 'Supremacy').[36] Decisions regarding EU legislation may be referred to the European Court of Justice by national courts. The EU is regulated by a number of institutions, primarily the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, and European Parliament.

The EU is often described as being divided into three areas of responsibility, called 'pillars'. The original European Community policies form the first pillar, while the second consists of Common Foreign and Security Policy. The third pillar originally consisted of Justice and Home Affairs, however owing to changes introduced by the Amsterdam and Nice treaties, it currently only consists of Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters. Broadly speaking, the second and third pillars can be described as the intergovernmental pillars because the supranational institutions of the Commission, Parliament and the Court of Justice play less of a role or none at all, while the lead is taken by the intergovernmental Council of Ministers and the European Council. Most activities of the EU come under the first, Community pillar. This is mostly economically oriented and the supranational institutions have more influence.[37]

Commission

Main article: European Commission
The Berlaymont in Brussels houses the European Commission.

The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. It is intended to act solely in the interest of the EU as a whole, as opposed to the Council which consists of leaders of member states who reflect national interests. The commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state.

The President of the Commission and all the other commissioners are nominated by the Council. Appointment of the Commission President, and also the Commission in its entirety, have to be confirmed by Parliament.[38]

Parliament

Main article: European Parliament
The hemicycle of the Parliament's Louise Weiss building in Strasbourg

The European Parliament forms one half of the EU's legislature. The 785 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats. The Parliament and the Council form and pass legislation jointly, using co-decision, in certain areas of policy. This procedure will extend to many new areas under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon, and hence increase the power and relevance of the Parliament. The Parliament also has the power to reject or censure the Commission and the EU budget. The President of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in parliament and represents it externally. The president and vice presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.[39]

Council of the European Union

Main article: Council of the European Union

The Council of the European Union forms the other half of the EU's legislature. It is an organised platform where national ministers responsible for the area of policy being addressed, meet. Although the Council meets in different compositions, it is considered to be one single body.[40] In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

The rotating Presidency of the EU Council is taken by each member state in turn for a period of six months, during which the relevant member chairs most meetings of the Council.[40] The member state holding the presidency typically uses it to drive and focus on a limited number of policy areas; such as various types of reform, enlargement or external relations with a specific part of the world.

European Council

Main article: European Council

Highest-ranking political leadership in the EU is provided by the European Council, which is composed of one representative per member state plus the President of the Commission. The member states choose as their representative either the head of state (e.g., the president) or the head of government (e.g., the prime minister). The European Council meets on at least four summits a year, and is led by the representative of the rotating presidency.[40] The European Council should not to be mistaken with the Council of Europe, an intergovernmental institution independent from the EU.

Further information: Law of the European Union and Treaties of the European Union

Although the Treaties are the ultimate source of EU Law, there are a number of legislative instruments available to the EU institutions. The three main instruments are Regulations, Directives and Decisions. There is no formal hierarchy regarding the three types.

Regulations are legislative acts which become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures to have been taken by member states.[41] Once in force their contents automatically override conflicting domestic provisions, as a result of having direct effect in the national law of the member states.[34]

Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result within a certain time period. Directives are generally used where it is thought preferable to leave the precise details of legislative implementation to national governments.[42] Once the stated time period has passed, under certain conditions provisions within a Directive may have direct effect in national law against Member States.

File:EUCoJ.jpg
The ECJ in Luxembourg can judge member states over EU law.

Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. The Council and the Commission may publish in the official journal a decision, notified to a particular addressee, such as an individual trader or a company. Decisions will be found most commonly in Competition Law, or on rulings on State Aid, and can be challenged by the addressee under certain circumstances before the EU courts.

The EU's legal system contains a multiplicity of legislative procedures used to enact the above legislation. The treaties provide the basis for all legislation and lay down the different ways of adopting legislation for different policy areas.[43] A common feature of the EU's legislative procedures is that almost all legislation must be proposed by the Commission, rather than member states or European parliamentarians. The two most common procedures are co-decision, under which the European Parliament can veto proposed legislation, and consultation, under which Parliament is only permitted to give an opinion which can be ignored by European leaders. In most cases legislation must be agreed by the council.[44] See: European Union legislative procedure.

Courts

Further information: European Court of Justice

The judicial branch of the EU consists of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and the Court of First Instance (to be renamed the "General Court" upon the entering into force of the Treaty of Lisbon). Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU.[45] The Court of First Instance mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts, and the ECJ primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions and cases referred to the EU's courts by the courts of member states.[46] Decisions from the Court of First Instance can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.[47]

National courts within the Member States also play a key role in the EU as enforcers of EU law, and a "spirit of cooperation" between EU and national courts is laid down in the Treaties. National courts can apply EU law in domestic cases, and if they require clarification on the interpretation or validity of any EU legislation related to the case it may make a reference for a preliminary ruling to the ECJ. The right to declare EU legislation invalid however is reserved to the EU courts.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the European Union
Commission President José Manuel Barroso

Two major political issues for the EU are European integration and enlargement. Enlargement, the accession of new states to the EU, is a highly politicised issue. Supporters argue it aids democracy in new members, as well as supporting the European economy as a whole. Opponents fear the EU is expanding beyond its current political capabilities, and/or cultural boundaries. Public opinion, and hence political party viewpoint, has been more skeptical towards enlargement since the simultaneous accession of 10 members in 2004. This is most acute in relation to the candidacy of Turkey.[48][49][50]

Integration is another political issue, where the public view is sometimes that national interest conflicts with that of the EU. The aim of increasing harmonisation between states has meant that national powers have been transferred to the European level. This is criticised by eurosceptics who fear the loss of national sovereignty.[51] In 2004 the European Constitution was agreed between national leaders and the EU institutions. However it did not come into force after it was rejected in referenda in two countries, with the prospect of further rejections had attempts at ratification continued. In October 2007 European leaders finalised a new Treaty of Lisbon which contains much of the now defunct constitution, without the latter's constitutional terms and elements.

The treaty is expected to come into force in 2009. If ratified it will introduce more majority voting in the Council and increase the powers of the European Parliament. The treaty also proposes to abolish the EU's pillar system. More aspects of foreign policy will now be subject to the supranational, as opposed to intergovernmental, institutions.[52][17]


Justice, freedom and security

Further information: Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters and European Commissioner for Justice, Freedom & Security
The Schengen Agreement has ensured open borders between most member states. (Austro-German border)

Much of the EU's competence in the justice and home affairs area originates from the signing of the Schengen Agreement in 1985 on gradual abolition of border controls between six of the then ten European Community member states. In order to implement the Schengen Agreement, the signatory states included measures designed to compensate for the effect of reduced border controls in the areas of asylum, immigration and criminal justice.[53] The Maastricht Treaty transferred the Schengen acquis to the EU (title IV of the Maastricht Treaty as originally enacted).[54]

Additional competencies were assigned to the EU by the Maastricht Treaty to facilitate the freedom of movement of people by adopting common rules in civil matters, such as contract and family law.[54] The Maastricht Treaty also introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union, which is complementary to national citizenship.[55]

Amendments to these treaties by the Amsterdam Treaty added a new aim of the EU as the creation of an "area of Justice, Freedom and Security".[56] That treaty also made it easier to pass laws in the justice and home affairs area and more difficult for member states to veto them. It also increased the powers of the European Parliament in relation to Justice and Home affairs' measures, with decisions in certain matters coming to be decided by codecision. Recent legislation includes the European Arrest Warrant[57] and directives on family law.[58]

The EU has established agencies to co-ordinate its actions in the justice and home affairs area: Europol for co-operation of police forces,[59] Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,[60] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.[61] The EU also operates the Schengen Information System[5] which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities.

Fundamental rights

The EU has developed a role in human rights protection. Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.[62] The Amsterdam Treaty supplemented these, by supporting further legislation against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age and sexual orientation.[63] Using these powers the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination and racial discrimination.[64] All EU states have abolished capital punishment for all crimes and the EU has been a prominent campaigner for global abolition.[65]

Signing the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership, however the institutions of the EU are not covered by this. As the EU was not capable of signing the ECHR without a treaty change, the EU drew up the Charter of Fundamental Rights. The charter consolidated not only the rights of the ECHR but those of other UN and EU agreements, covering economic, political and social rights including "third generation" rights such as good governance and a clean environment. Although it was proclaimed in 2000, it has no legal force at present (2007). Under the Reform Treaty, the Charter would become legally binding and the EU would accede to the ECHR,[66] which would make the European Court of Human Rights, currently totally separate from the EU, the highest court in the EU for Human Rights, above the EU's Court of Justice. Even without joining, the Court of Justice and Court of Human Rights co-operate to ensure their case-law does not conflict, thus the Court of Justice already treats the ECHR as though it was part of EU law.[67]

Foreign relations

Further information: Foreign relations of the European Union and Common Foreign and Security Policy
Javier Solana is the EU's High Representative in foreign policy.

The foreign relations of the EU are primarily dealt with through the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Co-operation in international trade negotiations, under the Common Commercial Policy, dates back to the establishment of the Community in 1957.[68] The CFSP itself has its origins in the formation of European Political Co-operation in 1970.[69] European Political Co-operation was an informal consultation process between member states on foreign policy matters, with the aim of forming common policies. It was formally introduced into the then European Community by the Single European Act and subsequently renamed as the "Common Foreign and Security Policy" by the Maastricht Treaty.[69]

The Maastricht Treaty gives the Common Foreign and Security Policy the aims of promoting both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole. This includes promoting international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy and the rule of law.[70]

The Amsterdam Treaty created the office of the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (currently held by Javier Solana) to co-ordinate the EU's foreign policy.[71] The High Representative, in conjunction with the current Presidency, speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy matters and can have the task of articulating ambiguous policy positions created by disagreements among member states. The Common Foreign and Security Policy requires unanimity among the now 27 member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular policy. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP makes disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq,[72] not uncommon.

The EU participates in all G8 summits. (Heiligendamm, Germany)

Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered a major factor contributing to the reform of former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.[49] This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[73] Finnish Prime Minister, Matti Vanhanen, cited the common foreign policy as a factor why Finland is, de facto, no longer a neutral country. It is not known if this view is shared by the leaders of the other neutral countries in the EU.[74]

Besides the CFSP, the Commission also has its own representation in international organisations. This is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works alongside the High Representative. In the UN the EU has gained influence in areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field (see below).[75] In the G8, the EU has rights of membership besides chairing/hosting summit meetings and is represented at meetings by the presidents of the Commission and the Council.[76] In the World Trade Organisation (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.[77]

Humanitarian aid

Further information: ECHO (European Commission)
The EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world.

The European Community humanitarian aid office, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2006 its budget amounted to 671 million euros, 48% of which went to the ACP countries.[78] Counting the EU's own contributions and those of its member states together, the EU is the largest aid donor in the world.[79]

The EU's aid has previously been criticised by the eurosceptic think-tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to economic objectives.[80] Furthermore, some charities have claimed European governments have inflated the amount they have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students, and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures, the EU did not reach its internal aid target in 2006[81] and the EU would not reach the international target of 0.7% of GNP until 2015. However only a few countries have reached that target. In 2005 EU aid was 0.34% of the GNP which was higher than that of the United States and Japan.[82] The current commissioner for aid, Louis Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect, and on humanitarian principles.[79]

Military and defence

Main articles: European Security and Defence Policy and Military of the European Union
File:Eufor222.jpg
CFSP forces are peacekeeping in parts of the Balkans and Africa.

Member states are responsible for their own territorial defence. Many EU members are also members of NATO. The Western European Union (WEU) is a European security organisation related to the EU. In 1992, the WEU's relationship with the EU was defined, when the EU assigned it the "Petersberg tasks" (humanitarian missions such as peacekeeping and crisis management). These tasks were later transferred from the WEU to the EU by the Amsterdam Treaty; they formed part of the new CFSP and the European Security and Defence Policy. Elements of the WEU are currently being merged into the EU's CFSP, and the President of the WEU is currently CFSP High Representative.[83][84]

Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 men.[85] EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East.[86] EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.[87]

Economic policy

Further information: Economy of the European Union
163 of the world´s 500 largest corporations are headquartered in EU countries. (Nokia, Finland)

Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members. Currently a single currency is in use between the 15 members of the eurozone.[88][89] Considered as a single economy, the EU generated an estimated nominal gross domestic product (GDP)of US$16,830 billion in 2007, amounting to 31% of the world's total economic output,[2] which makes it the largest economy in the world. It is also the largest exporter of goods,[90] the second largest importer,[91] and the biggest trading partner to several countries such as India, and China.[92][93][94] 163 of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500) have their headquarters in the EU.[95] In May 2007 unemployment in the EU stood at 7%[96] while investment was at 21.4% of GDP, inflation at 2.2% and public deficit at -0.9% of GDP.[97]

Single market

Further information: Four Freedoms (European Union)

The Treaty of Rome originally created a European Economic Community. This outlined the staged development of a single market, starting with the introduction of a customs union between the signatories. This became the European Community, one part of the European Union, which still has a primary task of creating and maintaining the single market. In particular it seeks to guarantee four freedoms, which relate to ensuring the free movement of goods, capital, people and services within the area.[89]

The principle of free movement of goods ensures goods can be taken anywhere within the whole market without being subject to barriers or obstacles. This freedom has both an internal and external dimension. Internally, goods must not be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or measures restricting import quantities between member countries. Externally, goods entering the internal market will be granted freedom after paying the Common Customs Tariff.

The EU has introduced a standardised passport design with a varying national emblem at the centre.[98]

Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.[99] Until the drive towards Economic and Monetary Union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgments regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as that it is granted equally to non-member countries.

The free movement of persons means citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.[100] Traditionally the economically active were granted a much greater level of freedom than others. The extension to the non-economically active was first recognised in 1999 when the concept of Community Citizenship was introduced to the EU. In addition to extending the scope of the free movement of persons, it also grants certain social and political rights to the citizens of the EU.

The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states in order to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. Services account for between sixty and seventy percent of GDP, although legislation is not as developed as in other sectors. This has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise this area of the market.[101] According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.

The freedoms are not absolute in nature. Member states may interfere with their exercise on the specific grounds laid down in the Treaty, or can rely on the case law of the European Courts for more general justifications. For example, the Treaty allows member states to restrict movements that would pose a real threat to public policy or public security. In the absence of Community legislation it is for the member states to decide the scope of the exceptions. The European Courts will arbitrate as to whether the actions of the member state are proportionate and in conformity with Community law. The freedoms are extended to the non-member states of Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway via the European Economic Area.[22] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.[102]

Monetary union

Further information: Euro and Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union
The European Central Bank in Frankfurt governs Eurozone monetary policy.

A single currency for the EU has been an official objective since 1969 and work began in 1990 on Economic and Monetary Union. Nine years later the euro was launched in eleven of the then fifteen member states as an accounting currency, meaning that national currencies remained in use but with exchange rates locked to the euro. On 1 January 2002, euro notes and coins were issued and the national currencies were phased out in twelve countries. Slovenia adopted the euro on 1 January 2007, Cyprus and Malta on 1 January 2008, thereby extending the Eurozone to currently 15 states using the euro as their sole official currency. All other EU members, except Denmark and the United Kingdom, have agreed to join as a condition of being members of the EU and dates for this will be set when economic conditions have been met. Public opinion in Denmark currently favours joining. Sweden has circumvented the requirement to join the euro area by not meeting the membership criteria. A number of other countries outside the EU, such as Montenegro, also use the euro unofficially.[24] The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB).[103] There are twelve other currencies used in the EU.[88]

The euro is designed to help build the single market by, for example: easing travel of citizens and goods, eliminating exchange rate problems, providing price transparency, creating a single financial market, price stability, low interest rates, having a currency used internationally and protected against shocks by the large amount of internal trade within the eurozone. It is also intended as a political symbol of integration and stimulus for more.[88] In recent years holdings of the euro have grown, and there is some speculation that if the eurozone continues to enlarge, and/or the U.S. dollar continues to fall, the euro could become the main world reserve currency.[104]

Competition

Further information: European Community competition law and European Commissioner for Competition

The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.[105] The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.[106]

The Competition Commissioner, currently Neelie Kroes, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable in effecting trans-national corporations.[107] For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States which had already been approved by their national authority.[108] Another high profile case, European Union v. Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.[109]

In negotiations on the Treaty of Lisbon, French President Nicolas Sarkozy succeeded in removing the words "free and undistorted competition" from the treaties. However, the requirement is maintained in an annex and it is unclear whether this will have any practical effect on EU policy.[110]

Budget

Further information: Budget of the European Union

The EU had an agreed budget of €116 billion for the year 2007, and €862 billion for the period 2007-2013;[111] this represents around 1% of the EU's combined GDP. By comparison, the UK's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be €759 billion, and France was estimated to have spent €801 billion. In 1960, the then "EU" (EEC) budget was 0.03% of GDP.[112]

The largest single expenditure item is the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) at around 45% of the total budget. The second largest element is the regional policy, at 30%. Foreign policy consumes 8%, administration 6%, research 5%.

Development policy

Agriculture

Main article: Common Agricultural Policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one the oldest policies of the European Community and was one of its core aims.[113] The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers (article 33 of the Treaty of Rome).[26] It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and still accounts for around 35%.[113]

EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure. (Vinyard in Spain)

The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction, resulting in so-called butter mountains and wine lakes. These were intervention stores of produce bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. In order to dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their produce outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers in the developing world.[114] The overproduction has also been criticised on environmental grounds in that it encourages environmentally unfriendly intensive farming methods.[114] Supporters of CAP say that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living, in what would otherwise be an economically unviable way of life. However, the EU's small farmers only receive 8% of CAP's available subsidies.[114]

Since the beginning of the 1990s the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially these reforms included the introduction of Set-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas (by the McSharry reforms in 1992) and more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). It is intended to move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to have the effect of allowing the market to dictate production levels while maintaining agricultural income levels.[113] The most recent reform entailed the abolition of the EU's sugar regime which previously involved the carving up of the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.[115]

Energy

Main article: Energy policy of the European Union
Many EU members import oil and gas from Russia.

The EU has been a legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence: this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.[116]

The Commission has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing use of renewable energy; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.[116]

The EU currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas, making it the world's leading importer of these fuels.[117] There are concerns that the EU is largely dependent on other countries, primarily Russia, for its energy. This concern has grown following a series of clashes between Russia and its neighbours, threatening the flow of gas. As a result the EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply.[118]

Infrastructure

Further information: European Commissioner for Transport and European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry
File:Oresundsbroen HCS.jpg
Infrastructure, such as the Oresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden, is a priority to increase trade and mobility.

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Oresund Bridge and the Brenner Base Tunnel. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.[119][120]

The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.[121] The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition: at Poland's accession to the EU, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to EU standards, demanding approximately 17 billion euros.[122]

Another infrastructure project is the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA), and is to be operational by 2010. The Galileo project was launched to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, which will extend to nations outside the EU.[123] It has been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and the perception of redundancy due to the existing GPS system.[124]

Regional development

Further information: Regional policy of the European Union
EU funds finance infrastructure such as the motorway Prague-Berlin. (Lovosice, Czech Republic)

There are substantial economical disparities across the EU. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (NUT-2 and NUT-3 of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) is about a factor of ten. On the high end Frankfurt has €68,751 PPP per capita, Paris €67,980, and Inner London €65,138, while Romania's Nord-Est has €5,070 PPP per capita and Bulgaria's Severozapaden has €5,502 PPP per capita.[125] Compared to the EU average, the United States GDP per capita is 35% higher and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.[126]

There are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds to support development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the new member states of eastern Europe.[127] Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the former USSR Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. The EU Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) sponsors research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.[128]

Environment

Further information: European Commissioner for the Environment and European Climate Change Programme
The Commission is trying to protect the Rospuda valley in Poland.

The first environmental policy of the European Community was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. The Water framework directive is an example of a water policy, aiming for rivers, lakes, ground and coastal waters to be of "good quality" by 2015. Wildlife is protected through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites throughout Europe.[129] In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme.[130]

The REACH regulation was a piece of EU legislation designed to ensure that 30,000 chemicals in daily use are tested for their safety.[131] In 2006, toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the Commission to look into legislation regarding toxic waste. With members such as Spain now having criminal laws against shipping toxic waste, the Commission proposed to create criminal sentences for "ecological crimes". Although the Commission's right to propose criminal law was contested, it was confirmed in this case by the Court of Justice.[132]

In 2007, member states agreed that the EU is to use 20% renewable energy in the future and that is has to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.[133] This includes measures that in 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 should be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves of an important industrialised region to fight global warming.[134]

At the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference, dealing with the successor to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU has proposed at 50% cut in greenhouse gases by 2050.[135] The EU's attempts to cut its carbon footprint appear to have also been aided by an expansion of Europe's forests which, between 1990 and 2005, grew 10% in western Europe and 15% in Eastern Europe. During this period they soaked up 126 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, equivalent to 11% of EU emissions from human activities.[135]

Education and research

Further information: Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development
Renewable energy is one priority in transnational research activities such as the FP7.

Education and science are areas where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In education, the policy was mainly developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life.[136] There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.[137] Through its support of the Bologna process the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.

Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.[138] The Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) deals in a number of areas, for example energy where it aims to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy for the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.[139]

Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a more ambitious objective, known as the European Research Area, and has extensively funded research in a few key areas. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. It aims to focus on co-ordination, sharing knowledge, ensuring mobility of researchers around Europe, improving conditions for researchers and encouraging links with business and industry as well as removing any legal and administrative barriers.[140] The EU is involved with six other countries to develop ITER, a fusion reactor which will be built in the EU at Cadarache. ITER builds on the previous project, Joint European Torus, which is currently the largest nuclear fusion reactor in the world.[141] The Commission foresees this technology to be generating energy in the EU by 2050.[116] It has observer status within CERN, there are various agreements with ESA and there is collaboration with ESO.[142] Theses organizations are not under the framework of the EU, but membership heavily overlaps between them.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the European Union
Population of the 5 largest cities in the EU[143]
City City limits
(2006) 		Density
/km²
 (city limits) 		Urban area
(2005) 		LUZ
(2001)
Berlin 3,410,000 3,815 3,761,000 4,935,524
London 7,512,400 4,761 9,332,000 11,624,807
Madrid 3,228,359 5,198 4,858,000 5,372,433
Paris 2,153,600 24,672 9,928,000 10,952,011
Rome 2,708,395 2,105 2,867,000 3,700,424

The combined population of all 27 member countries has been estimated at 495,128,529 in January 2007,[144] this in comparison to approximately 710 million Europeans on the continent as a whole. There is some increase in population expected, primarily due to net immigration, present in most European countries.[145][146]

The EU's population is 7.3% of the world total, yet the EU covers just 3% of the earth's land, amounting to a population density of 114/km2 (300/sq mi) (2006) making the EU one of the most densely populated regions of the world. One third of EU citizens live in cities of over a million people, rising to 80% living in urban areas generally.[147] The EU is home to more global cities than any other region in the world.[148] It contains 16 cities with populations of over one million.

Besides many large cities, the EU also includes several densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas. The largest are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish diamond (urban area in between Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven and Ghent), approx. 5.5 million inhabitants, and the Upper Silesian Industrial Region approx. 3.5 million (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.).[149]

Languages

Main article: Languages of the European Union
Languages (2006)[150]
Language L1 Total
English 13% 51%
German 18% 32%
French 12% 26%
Italian 13% 16%
Spanish 9% 15%
Polish 9% 10%
Romanian 7% 8%
Dutch 5% 6%
Greek 3% 3%
Swedish 2% 3%
Czech 2% 3%
Portuguese 2% 2%
Hungarian 2% 2%
Bulgarian 2% 2%
Slovak 1% 1%
Other EU Languages ~6%
Minority Languages ~16%
L1: Native language
Total: EU citizens able to conduct
conversation in this language

The EU has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, and Swedish.[151] Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language. The European Parliament provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions. Some institutions use only a handful of languages as internal working languages.[152] Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages.[153][154]

German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 88.7 million people as of 2006), followed by English, French, and Italian. English is by far the most spoken foreign language at over half (51%) of the population, with German and French following. 56% of European citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.[150] Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. Most EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.[155]

Besides the 23 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.[155] Of these, only the Spanish regional languages (Catalan, Basque and Galician) can be used by citizens in communication with the main European institutions.[156] Although EU programmes can support regional and minority languages, the protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states.

Besides the many regional languages, a broad variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in the member states: Turkish, Maghrebi Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual, being fluent in both the local (EU) language and in that of their ancestral community. Migrant languages have no formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries, although from 2007 they are eligible for support from the language teaching section of the EU's Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013.[155]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the European Union

The EU is a secular body, with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty.[26] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity and/or God in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.[157]

Percentage of Europeans in each Member State who believe in some deity

Emphasis on Christianity stems from this being the dominant religion in Europe, and thus of the EU. It divides between Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches (especially in northern Europe) and Eastern Orthodox (in south eastern Europe). Other religions such as Judaism and Islam are also represented in the EU population; in 2002 the EU had an estimated Jewish population of over a million[158] and a Muslim population in 2006 of 16 million people.[159]

Eurobarometer opinion polls organised by Eurostat show that the majority of EU citizens have some form of belief system but that only 21% see it as important. There is increasing atheism or agnosticism among the general population in Europe, with falling church attendance and membership in many countries.[160] The 2005 Eurobarometer showed that of the European citizens (of the 25 members at that time), 52% believed in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%),[161] The most religious societies are those in Malta (95%; predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards right-wing politics, and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.[161]

Other significant religions present in the EU territories are Buddhism, Hinduism (with a strong presence in the United Kingdom[162]) and Neopaganism.[163] Neopaganism is a fast-growing movement that revives and reinvents (in its reconstructionistic approach) the ancient pagan spiritualities of the European peoples.[164] Neopagan religions are legally recognised by the governments of the United Kingdom, Denmark[165], Sweden, and Spain.[166]

Cultural policy

Further information: Culture of Europe and Cultural policies of the European Union
Liverpool is one of the two European Capitals of Culture for 2008.

EU culture is intertwined with the culture of Europe and its specific national heritages; policies affecting cultural matters are mainly set by individual member states. Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.[167] Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,[167] the European Cultural Month event,[168] the Media Plus programme,[169] orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra[170] and the European Capital of Culture programme– where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist the cultural development of that city.[171] In addition, the EU gives grants to cultural projects (totalling 233 in 2004) and has launched a Web portal dedicated to Europe and culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means".[172]

Within the EU, supporters of European integration often appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, typically including Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the feudalism of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, 19th century Liberalism and negative elements such as the World wars. European values are assumed to be grounded in this shared heritage.[173]

Sport

Further information: Sport in Europe and Sport policies of the European Union
Spectator sports are popular in many EU member states (Camp Nou, Barcelona)

Sport is mainly the responsibility of individual member states or other international organisations rather than that of the EU. However, some EU policies have had an impact on sport, such as the free movement of workers which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.[174]

Under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon sports would be given a special status which would exempt this sector from much of the EU's economic rules. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the applications of free market principles to sport which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.[175]

Several European sports associations are consulted in the formulation of the EU's sports policy, including FIBA, UEFA, EHF, IIHF, FIRA and CEV.[176] All EU member states and their respective national sport associations participate in European sport organisations such as UEFA.[177]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Symbols of the EU". Europa. Retrieved 2008-01-09.
  2. ^ a b c "Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects (European Union)". World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008 Edition. International Monetary Fund. 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-03. Gross domestic product, current prices; U.S. dollars, Billions; 2007 = 16,830.100, 2008=18,493.009. Gross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) valuation of country GDP; Current international dollar, Billions; 2007 = 14,712.369;2008 = 15,282.118 {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ "The EU Single Market: Fewer barriers, more opportunities". Europa, European Commission. Retrieved 2007-09-27. "Activities of the European Union: Internal Market". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  4. ^ Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
  5. ^ a b "Abolition of internal borders and creation of a single EU external frontier". Europa. 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-24. Cite error: The named reference "Internal borders" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  6. ^ "The political consequences". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  7. ^ "Declaration of 9 May 1950". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  8. ^ a b "A peaceful Europe - the beginnings of cooperation". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  9. ^ "Merging the executives". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  10. ^ "The first enlargement". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  11. ^ "The new European Parliament". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  12. ^ "Negotiations for enlargement". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  13. ^ "A Europe without frontiers". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  14. ^ "1980-1989 The changing face of Europe - the fall of the Berlin Wall". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  15. ^ "Treaty of Maastricht on European Union". Activities of the European Union. Europa. Retrieved 2007-10-20.; Craig, Paul (2006). EU Law: Text, Cases and Materials (4th ed. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. p15. ISBN 978-0-19-927389-8. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b "A decade of further expansion". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  17. ^ a b "Treaty of Lisbon at a glance". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  18. ^ "European Countries". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  19. ^ "European Commission - Enlargement - Candidate and Potential Candidate Countries". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  20. ^ "EU/Kosovo Factsheet" (PDF). European Union - Delegation of the European Commission to the United States. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  21. ^ "Accession criteria (Copenhagen criteria)". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  22. ^ a b European Commission. "The European Economic Area (EEA)". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  23. ^ "The EU's relations with Switzerland". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-16.
  24. ^ a b European Commission. "Use of the euro in the world". The euro outside the euro area. Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
  25. ^ EUR-Lex: Official Journal. "Treaty of Amsterdam". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  26. ^ a b c EUR-Lex. "Consolidated Treaties on European Union and establishing the European Community". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  27. ^ "Where is the euro legal tender?" (PDF). European Central Bank. 2006. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  28. ^ Figure including the four French overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion) which are an integral part of the EU, but excluding the French overseas collectivities and territories, which are not part of the EU.
  29. ^ "European countries". Europa. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  30. ^ "European Union". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
  31. ^ "Countries of the Earth". home.comcast.net. 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
  32. ^ "Humid Continental Climate". The physical environment. University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  33. ^ "Sources of EU law". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  34. ^ a b EUR-Lex. "European Community consolidated treaty, (article 249, provisions for making regulations)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
  35. ^ According to the principle of direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in Van Gend en Loos v. Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen, Eur-Lex (European Court of Justice 1963).. See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.
  36. ^ According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 Oct. 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.
  37. ^ "Pillars of the European Union". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  38. ^ "Institutions: The European Commission". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  39. ^ "Institutions: The European Parliament". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  40. ^ a b c "Institutions: The Council of the European Union". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  41. ^ See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973] ECR 981
  42. ^ To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the now 27 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115
  43. ^ For a good example of this see Title IV of Part Three of the Treaty of Rome, Council Decision (2004/927/EC) of 22 December 2004 providing for certain areas covered by Title IV of Part Three of the Treaty establishing the European Community to be governed by the procedure laid down in Article 251 of that Treaty and the Protocol on Article 67 of the Treaty establishing the European Community attached to the Nice Treaty.
  44. ^ "Decision-making in the European Union". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
  45. ^ EUR-Lex. "European Community consolidated treaty, (article 220, The court of Justice)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
  46. ^ "The Court of Justice of the European Communities". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-14.;"The Court of First Instance". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-14.; "Institutions: Court of Justice". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  47. ^ EUR-Lex. "European Community consolidated treaty, (article 225 (1), The court of First Instance)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
  48. ^ Smale, Alison; Bilefsky, Dan (2006-06-19). "Fighting EU 'enlargement fatigue'". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2007-08-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  49. ^ a b "EU enlargement - voices from the debate". British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  50. ^ "Q&A: Turkey's EU entry talks". BBC News. 2006-12-11. Retrieved 2007-08-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  51. ^ "FAQs on the EU, from the campaign trail". Sovereignty. 2001. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  52. ^ "EU leaders agree on reform treaty". BBC News. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  53. ^ "The Schengen acquis and its integration into the Union". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-01.
  54. ^ a b EUR-Lex. "Maastricht Treaty". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  55. ^ EUR-Lex. "European Community consolidated treaty, (article 17), European Citizenship)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  56. ^ EUR-Lex. "Amsterdam treaty article 1 s.3 amending European Union consolidated treaty article 2, creating an area of freedom and justice)". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  57. ^ "European arrest warrant replaces extradition between EU Member States". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
  58. ^ Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgements in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility.
  59. ^ "European police office now in full swing". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
  60. ^ "Eurojust coordinating cross-border prosecutions at EU level". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
  61. ^ Frontex. "What is Frontex?". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
  62. ^ EUR-Lex. "European Community consolidated treaty, (articles 39 and 141), prohibition of national or sexual discrimination)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  63. ^ EUR-Lex. "Amsterdam treaty article 2 s.7 amending European Community consolidated treaty article 13, combatting discrimination)". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
  64. ^ Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2.12.2000, p. 16–22).
  65. ^ "Launching the European Day against the Death Penalty". Europa. 2007-06-19. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  66. ^ "Q&A: The Lisbon Treaty". BBC News. 2007-10-19. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  67. ^ Juncker, Jean-Claude (2006). "Council of Europe - European Union: "A sole ambition for the European continent"" (PDF). Council of Europe. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  68. ^ "Qualified-Majority Voting: Common commercial policy". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
  69. ^ a b The European commission. "European political co-operation (EPC)". Europa Glossary. Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
  70. ^ EUR-Lex. "European Union consolidated treaty, (article 11, common foreign policy)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
  71. ^ "Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) - Overview". Europa. 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  72. ^ "Divided EU agrees Iraq statement". Europa. 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  73. ^ Bildt, Carl (2005). "Europe must keep its 'soft power'". Financial Times on Centre for European Reform. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  74. ^ European Parliament (2006-07-05). "Presentation of the programme of the Finnish presidency". Europa. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  75. ^ "EU heading for single UN seat, UN official says". EUobserver. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  76. ^ Delegation of the European Commission to Japan. "EU and the G8". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
  77. ^ European Commission. "The EU and the world trade organisation". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  78. ^ European Commission (2006). "DG for humanitarian aid - ECHO, financial report 2006" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  79. ^ a b European Commission (2007-06-13). "Commission calls for a European consensus to boost impact of humanitarian aid". Europa. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  80. ^ Mulvey, Stephen (2007-05-30). "EU attacked for 'inefficient' aid". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  81. ^ Taylor, Jerome (2007-05-11). "EU accused of artificially inflating its aid figures". The Independent. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  82. ^ European Commission. "Overviews of the European Union activities: Development". Europa. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  83. ^ European Commission. "EU Security Police & the role of the European Commission". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  84. ^ European Commission. "EU Security Police & the role of the European Commission: Chronology". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  85. ^ Council of the European Union. "Military Capabilities". Europa. Retrieved 2007-10-09.
  86. ^ Council of the European Union. "EU security and defense Operations". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  87. ^ Council of the European Union. "ESPD Structures". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
  88. ^ a b c European Commission. "The Euro: our currency". Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  89. ^ a b "The Single Market". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  90. ^ "Rank Order - Exports". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-08-21.
  91. ^ "Rank Order - Imports". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-08-21.
  92. ^ "China now EU's biggest import market". People's Daily Online. 2007-01-31. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  93. ^ "EU now biggest trading partner of China". Chinese Embassy. 2006-09-15. Retrieved 2008-04-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  94. ^ "India and the EU: strategic partners?". Centre for European Reform. February/March 2006. Retrieved 2008-04-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  95. ^ "Fortune Global 500: Countries". CNN Money. 2007-07-23. Retrieved 2007-08-24. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  96. ^ "Euro area and EU 27 unemployment down to 7.0%" (PDF). Europa. 2007-07-03. Retrieved 2007-11-01. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  97. ^ "Eur4. Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects". International Monetary Fund. April 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  98. ^ "New-generation passports to appear in Lithuania starting New Years". Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  99. ^ European Commission. "A Single Market for Capital". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  100. ^ European Commission. "Living and working in the Single Market". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  101. ^ European Commission. "A Single Market for Services". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  102. ^ European Commission. "A Single Market for goods". Europa. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  103. ^ "ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem". European Central Bank. Retrieved 2007-09-15.
  104. ^ Menzie, Chinn (2006). "Will the Euro Eventually Surpass The Dollar As Leading International Reserve Currency?" (PDF). NBER. Retrieved 2007-10-11. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  105. ^ Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome
  106. ^ European Commission. "Competition: making markets work better". Europa author=European Commission. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite web}}: Missing pipe in: |publisher= (help)
  107. ^ Lungescu, Oana (2004-07-23). "Examining the EU executive". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-09-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  108. ^ "The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell". Europa. 2001-07-03. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  109. ^ Gow, David (2007-10-22). "Microsoft caves in to European commission". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  110. ^ "EU competition to remain in place". BBC News. 2007-06-22. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  111. ^ European Commission. "EU budget at a glance". Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-06.
  112. ^ "Will Europe Work?". Euro-know. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  113. ^ a b c Stead, David (2007-06-22). "Common Agricultural Policy". EH.Net Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-08-30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  114. ^ a b c Jeffery, Simon (2007-06-26). "The EU common agricultural policy". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-08-30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  115. ^ "Sugar: Commission proposes more market-, consumer- and trade-friendly regime". Europa. 2007-04-14. Retrieved 2007-08-30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  116. ^ a b c "Q&A: EU energy plans". BBC News. 2007-03-09. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  117. ^ "'Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe". MSNBC. Retrieved 2007-01-24.
  118. ^ European Parliament. "Ukraine-Russia gas dispute– call for stronger EU energy policy". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
  119. ^ European Commission (2003-10-01). "The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  120. ^ Mirea, Silvia. "The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules". The Railway Journal. Retrieved 2007-08-15.
  121. ^ "White Paper on Transport". Euractiv. 2004-09-22. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  122. ^ "Transport – How Quickly will Polish Roads Improve After Accession". Urząd Komitetu Integracji Europejskiej. 2003-05-29. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  123. ^ Barrot, Jacques. "Jacques Barrot Home Page, Commission vice president for transport". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  124. ^ McKie, Robin (2007-07-15). "Sat-nav rival could crash and burn". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-08-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  125. ^ Eurostat. "Regional GDP per inhabitant in the EU 27" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-03-01.
  126. ^ Eurostat (2006-12-18). "GDP per capita in the Member States ranged from 48% to 251% of the EU25 average in 2005". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  127. ^ "EU Structural and Cohesion Funds". Business 2000. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  128. ^ "7th Research Framework Programme (FP7)". Euractiv. 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  129. ^ Dimas, Stavros (2007-03-23). "Celebrating the Environmental Union". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  130. ^ Easton, Adam (2007-07-31). "Poland ends stand-off with EU over road plans". Financial Times. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  131. ^ "EU chemicals directive agreed". RTÉ News And Current Affairs. 2006-12-01. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  132. ^ Aldred, Jessica. "EU sets 20% target for carbon cuts". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  133. ^ Ames, Paul (2007-03-09). "European Union agrees on ambitious plan to fight global warming". Discovery Channel, on Valcent Products website. Retrieved 2007-03-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  134. ^ a b "In Bali, EU Floats 50% Greenhouse Gas Cut". BusinessWeek. 2007-12-04. Retrieved 2007-12-07. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Cite error: The named reference "PostKyoto" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  135. ^ European Commission. "The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th anniversary". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.; Jean-Sébastien, Lefebvre (2007-01-22). "Erasmus turns 20 - time to grow up?". Café Babel. Retrieved 2007-08-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  136. ^ EACEA. "About the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.; European Commission. "Lifelong Learning Programme". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  137. ^ European Research Council. "What is the ERC?". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  138. ^ European Commission. "Energy". Europa. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  139. ^ European Commission. "What is the European Research Area?". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  140. ^ Fusion for energy. "ITER fusion research project". Europa. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
  141. ^ "Astronomical research collaborations". ESO. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  142. ^ LUZ figures all for 2001"City Profiles List". Urban Audit. European Commission, Directorate-General Regional Policy, Unit D2 Urban Actions. Retrieved 2008-02-06.
    Urban areas: all figures for 2005 (est.): "Pays, villes d'Europe et du monde". InsInstitut National de la Statistiqueet des Études Économiques. Retrieved 2008-02-06.
    City limits figures:
    London as at 1 July 2006: "Mid-2006 Population Estimates" (CSV). Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 2008-02-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
    Berlin as at September 2007: "Bevölkerung Berlin". Statistische Ämter des Bundes und der Länder (German statistics office). Retrieved 2008-02-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
    Madrid as at 1 january 2007: "Cifras de población". Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spanish national statistics office). Retrieved 2008-02-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
    Paris as at 1 July 2005: "Résultats des enquêtes annuelles de recensement de 2004 à 2007 pour les grandes villes". Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques (French national institute for statistics). Retrieved 2008-02-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 36 (help)
    Rome as at 31 December 2007 "Bilancio demografico Anno 2007". ISTAT (Italian national statistics office). Retrieved 2008-02-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  143. ^ Eurostat. "Total population". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
  144. ^ Eurostat (2005-04-08). "EU25 population rises until 2025, then falls" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  145. ^ Muenz, Rainer (2006). "Europe: Population and Migration in 2005". Migration Information. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
  146. ^ "A densely populated area". Telsat Guide. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
  147. ^ "The World According to GaWC". Loughborough University. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  148. ^ Eurostat. "Indicators for larger urban zones 1999 - 2003". Europa. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
  149. ^ a b European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
    European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summary)" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
  150. ^ EUR-Lex (2006-12-12). "Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of [[20 November]] [[2006]]". Official Journal of the European Union. Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  151. ^ "Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?". Europa. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
  152. ^ EUR-Lex (2004). "Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, Articles 149 to 150". Official Journal of the European Union. Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
  153. ^ European Parliament (2004). "European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy". Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
  154. ^ a b c European Commission (2004). "Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
  155. ^ "Mercator Newsletter - n. 29". Mercator Central. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
  156. ^ Castle, Stephen (2007-03-21). "EU celebrates 50th birthday-with a row about religion". The Independent. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
  157. ^ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. These estimates are taken from: Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population (2002)". American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  158. ^ "In Europa leben gegen­wärtig knapp 53 millionen Muslime". Islam.de. 2006-02-25. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); soft hyphen character in |title= at position 22 (help)
  159. ^ Ford, Peter (2005-02-22). "What place for God in Europe". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
  160. ^ a b Eurostat (2005). "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  161. ^ UK 2001 census
  162. ^ BBC section on Neopaganism
  163. ^ Strmiska, Michael F. (2005). Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
  164. ^ Forklaring til Forn Siðr´s ansøgning om godkendelse som trossamfund.
  165. ^ Odinist and Asatruar Community of Spain - legalization
  166. ^ a b Bozoki, Andras. "Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union" (PDF). IECOB, Institute for Central Eastern and Balkan Europe. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
  167. ^ European Commission. "European Culture Month". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
  168. ^ European Commission (2007-07-05). "Media programme". Europa. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  169. ^ "An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra". The European Youth Orchestra. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
  170. ^ European Commission. "European Capitals of Culture". Europa. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
  171. ^ "Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity". Europa. 2006-05-03. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
  172. ^ For example: Hans-Gert Poettering (2007-02-13). "Priority is dialogue for partnership and tolerance". Inaugural speech by the new president of the European Parliament. Europa, European parliament. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
  173. ^ Fordyce, Tom (2007-07-11). "10 years since Bosman". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  174. ^ "IOC, FIFA presidents welcomes new EU treaty, call it breakthrough to give sports more power". International Herald Tribune. 2007-10-19. Retrieved 2007-10-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  175. ^ "Statement of European team sports" (PDF). UEFA.com. 2007-10-19. Retrieved 2007-10-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  176. ^ "UEFA". UEFA.com. 2007-10-19. Retrieved 2007-10-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Further reading

  • Craig, Paul (2007). EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials (4th ed. ed.). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927389-8. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Steiner, Josephine (2006). EU Law (9th ed. ed.). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927959-3. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Barnard, Catherine (2007). The Substantive Law of the EU: The Four Freedoms (2nd ed. ed.). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929839-6. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  • Jenson, Jane (2003). "Is Europe still sui generis? Signals from The White Paper on European Governance. Prepared for the Eighth Biennial International Conference, European Union Studies Association, 27-29 March 2003, Nashville, Tennessee" (PDF). Eighth Biennial International Conference, European Union Studies Association. Retrieved 2007-11-13. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • The Economist Guide to the European Union (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 978-1-86197-930-8
  • Access to European Union: law, economics, policies by Nicholas Moussis (European Study Service, 2007 – 16th ed.) ISBN 978-2-930119-43-4
  • Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6
  • Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1
  • The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0198700520
  • The Government and Politics of the European Union by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 978-0-333-98461-1
  • The European Union: A Very Short Introduction by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN 978-0-19-285375-2
  • This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair by Hugo Young (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 978-0-333-57992-3
  • The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3
  • The European Union Collective: Enemy of its Member States by Christopher Story (Edward Harle Limited, 2002) ISBN 1-899798-01-3
  • Template:PDFlink by Hans Köchler, Singapore Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 9 (2005), Accessed January 25, 2007

Government

Overviews and data

Maps

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Union&oldid=219794905"