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William Shakespeare (National Portrait Gallery), in the famous Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.

William Shakespeare (April, 1564 -- baptised April 26, 1564 -- April 23, 1616) was an English poet and playwright who has a reputation as the greatest of all writers in the English language and in Western literature, as well as one of the world's pre-eminent dramatists.

Shakespeare's literary achievement is not confined to his mastery of the poetic and dramatic form; his ability to capture and convey the most profound aspects of human nature is considered by many scholars to be unequalled, due to his understanding of the range and depth of human emotions. A colossal figure in world literature, Shakespeare's legacy and influence continues to be felt in all parts of the globe. He has been translated into every major living language, and his plays are continually performed all around the world. Shakespeare is among the very few playwrights who have excelled in both tragedy and comedy.

Shakespeare wrote his works between 1588 and 1616, although the exact dates and chronology of the plays attributed to him are often uncertain. His prolific output is especially impressive in light of the fact that he lived only 52 years.

Shakespeare's influence on the English-speaking world shows in the widespread use of quotations from Shakespearean plays, the titles of works based on Shakespearean phrases, and the many adaptations of his works.

Biography

Many scholars believe that enough historical evidence exists to map out Shakespeare's life in some detail.

Early life

Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England, in April 1564, the son of John Shakespeare, a successful tradesman, and of Mary Arden, a daughter of the gentry. They lived on Henley Street. His baptismal record dates to April 26 of that year. Because baptisms were performed within a few days of birth, tradition has settled on April 23 as his birthday. It provides a convenient symmetry: he died on that day in 1616, and perhaps appropriately for a playwright commonly considered to be England's greatest, it is also the Feast Day of Saint George, the patron saint of England.

The house in Stratford known as 'Shakespeare's Birthplace' (although this status is uncertain). It is claimed that the poet was born in the room with the checked windows.

Shakespeare's father, prosperous at the time of William's birth, was prosecuted for participating in the black market in wool, and later lost his position as an alderman. Some evidence pointed to possible Roman Catholic sympathies on both sides of the family.

As the son of a prominent town official, William Shakespeare probably attended King Edward VI Grammar school in central Stratford, which may have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar and literature. The quality of Elizabethian-era grammar schools was uneven. It is presumed that the young Shakespeare attended this school, since he was entitled to, although this cannot be confirmed because the school's records have not survived. There is no evidence that his formal education extended beyond grammar school.

Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior, on November 28, 1582 at Temple Grafton, near Stratford. Two neighbours of Anne, Fulk Sandalls and John Richardson, posted bond that there were no impediments to the marriage. There appears to have been some haste in arranging the ceremony: Anne was three months pregnant. After his marriage, William Shakespeare left few traces in the historical record until he appeared on the London literary scene.

The late 1580s are known as Shakespeare's 'Lost Years' because no evidence has survived to show exactly where he was or why he left Stratford for London. One legend is that he was caught poaching deer on the park of Sir Thomas Lucy, the local Justice of the Peace, and had to flee. Another theory is that Shakespeare could have joined the Lord Chamberlain's Men when they travelled through Stratford while on tour. The seventeenth-century biographer John Aubrey believed that Shakespeare spent some time as "a schoolmaster in the country".

On May 26, 1583 Shakespeare's first child, Susanna, was baptised at Stratford. A son, Hamnet, and a daughter, Judith, were baptised soon after on February 2, 1585.

London and theatrical career

By 1592 Shakespeare was a playwright in London and had enough of a reputation for Robert Greene to denounce him as "an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and beeing an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey." (The italicised line parodies the phrase, "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" which Shakespeare wrote in Henry VI, part 3.)

In 1596 Hamnet died; he was buried on August 11, 1596. Some suspect that his death was part of the inspiration behind The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (c.1601), a reworking of an older, lost play (possibly Danish play Amleth or Thomas Kyd).

By 1598 Shakespeare had moved to the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and appeared at the top of a list of actors in Every man in his Humour written by Ben Jonson.

Shakespeare's signature, from his will

Shakespeare became an actor, writer and finally part-owner of a playing company, known as The Lord Chamberlain's Men — the company took its name, like others of the period, from its aristocratic sponsor, the Lord Chamberlain. The group became popular enough that after the death of Elizabeth I and the coronation of James I (1603), the new monarch adopted the company and it became known as the King's Men.

In 1604, Shakespeare acted as a matchmaker for his landlord's daughter. Legal documents from 1612, when the case was brought to trial, show that in 1604, Shakespeare was a tenant of Christopher Mountjoy, a Huguenot tire-maker (a maker of ornamental headdresses) in the northwest of London. Mountjoy's apprentice Stephen Belott wanted to marry Mountjoy's daughter. Shakespeare was enlisted as a go-between, to help negotiate the details of the dowry. On Shakespeare's assurances, the couple married. Eight years later, Belott sued his father-in-law for delivering only part of the dowry. Shakespeare was called to testify, but remembered little of the circumstances.

New Place, Stratford-on-Avon, built on the site of Shakespeare's home

Various documents recording legal affairs and commercial transactions show that Shakespeare grew rich enough during his stay in London years to buy a property in Blackfriars, London and own the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place.

Later years

Shakespeare retired in about 1611. His retirement was not entirely without controversy. He was drawn into a legal quarrel regarding the enclosure of common lands. (Enclosure enabled land to be converted to pasture for sheep, but removed it as a resource for the poor.) Shakespeare had a financial interest in the land, and to the chagrin of some, he took a neutral position, making sure only that his own income from the land was protected.

In the last few weeks of Shakespeare's life, the man who was to marry his younger daughter Judith — a tavern-keeper named Thomas Quiney — was charged in the local church court with "fornication." A woman named Margaret Wheeler had given birth to a child and claimed it was Quiney's; she and the child both died soon after. Quiney was thereafter disgraced, and Shakespeare revised his will to ensure that Judith's interest in his estate was protected from possible malfeasance on Quiney's part.

Shakespeare died on April 23 1616 at the age of 51. He remained married to Anne until his death and was survived by his two daughters, Susannah and Judith. Susannah married Dr John Hall. Although Susannah and Judith both had children, none of them had any offspring and as such there are no direct descendants of the poet and playwright alive today.

Shakespeare is buried in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon. He was granted the honour of burial in the chancel not on account of his fame as a playwright, but for purchasing a share of the tithe of the church for £440 (a considerable sum of money at the time). A bust of him placed by his family on the wall nearest his grave shows him posed as writing. Each year on his claimed birthday, a new quill pen is placed in the writing hand of the bust.

It was common in his time for graves in the chancel of the church to later be emptied with the contents removed to a nearby charnel house as more room was needed. Possibly fearing that his body would be removed, he was considered to have written an epitaph on his tombstone:

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
But cursed be he that moves my bones.

Popular legend claims that unpublished works by Shakespeare may lie inside his tomb, but no one has ever verified these claims, perhaps for fear of the curse included in the quoted epitaph.

Works

Canonical works

The plays and their categories

Shakespeare's plays first appeared in print as a series of folios and quartos, and scholars, actors and directors continue to study and perform them extensively. They form an established part of the Western canon of literature.

The plays are traditionally divided into tragedies, comedies and histories, following the logic of the original publications; however, modern criticism has labelled some of them "problem plays" as they elude easy categorization, or perhaps purposefully break generic conventions. In addition, Shakespeare's later comedies are commonly known as "romances".

The following list gives the plays in the order and categorization of the 1623 First Folio (the first collected edition of the plays). A single asterisk indicates a play commonly classified as a 'romance' today; two asterisks indicates those generally accepted as 'problem plays' - though other comedies still occasion critical dispute. To see the plays in the order in which they were written, see Chronology of Shakespeare plays.

Dramatic collaborations

Like most playwrights of his period, Shakespeare did not always write alone and a number of his plays were collaborative, although the exact number is open to debate. Some of the following attributions, such as for The Two Noble Kinsmen, have well-attested contemporary documentation; others, such as for Titus Andronicus, remain more controversial, and are dependant on linguistic analysis by modern scholars.

Lost plays

  • Love's Labour's Won A late sixteenth-century writer, Francis Meres, and a scrap of paper (apparently from a bookseller), both list this title among Shakespeare's recent works, but no play of this title has survived. It may have become lost, or it may represent an alternate title of one of the plays listed above, such as Much Ado About Nothing or All's Well That Ends Well.
  • Cardenio, a late play by Shakespeare and Fletcher, referred to in several documents, has not survived. It re-worked a tale in Cervantes' Don Quixote. In 1727, Lewis Theobald produced a play he called Double Falshood, which he claimed to have adapted from three manuscripts of a lost play by Shakespeare that he did not name. Double Falshood[sic] does re-work the Cardenio story, and modern scholarship generally agrees that Double Falshood represents all we have of the lost play.

Poems

Shakespeare's other literary works include:

Apocrypha

Plays possibly by Shakespeare

Note: For a comprehensive account of plays possibly by Shakespeare, see the separate entry on the Shakespeare Apocrypha.

  • Edward III Some scholars have recently chosen to attribute this play to Shakespeare, based on the style of its verse. Others refuse to accept it, citing, among other reasons, the mediocre quality of the characters. If Shakespeare had involvement, he probably worked as a collaborator.
  • Sir Thomas More, a collaborative work by several playwrights, possibly including Shakespeare. That Shakespeare had any part in this play remains uncertain.

Other works possibly by Shakespeare

  • A Funeral Elegy by W.S. (?). For a period many believed, on the basis of stylistic evidence researched by Donald Foster, that Shakespeare wrote a Funeral Elegy for William Peter. However most scholars, including Foster, now conclude that this evidence was flawed and that Shakespeare did not write the Elegy, which is more likely from the pen of John Ford.
  • The King James Version of the Bible Some people claim that Shakespeare assisted in the translation of the King James Bible, rewording or rewriting certain sections to make them more poetic; they argue that the poetic sensibility of certain sections of the King James Bible is very similar to the style of Shakespeare, and cite Psalm 46, where the word "shake" appears 46 words from the beginning, and "spear" 46 words from the end. This is a controversial notion and is not accepted by mainstream scholarship, though Neil Gaiman managed to work it into his Sandman graphic novel The Wake.

Shakespeare and the textual problem

Unlike his contemporary Ben Jonson, Shakespeare did not have direct involvement in publishing his plays. The problem of identifying what Shakespeare actually wrote became a major concern for most modern editions. Textual corruptions stemming from printers' errors, misreadings by compositors or simply wrongly scanned lines from the source material litter the Quartos and the First Folio. Additionally, in an age before standardised spelling, Shakespeare often wrote a word several times in a different spelling, and this may have contributed to some of the transcribers' confusion. Modern editors have the task of reconstructing Shakespeare's original words and expurgating errors as far as possible.

In some cases the textual solution presents few difficulties. In the case of Macbeth for example, scholars believe that someone (probably Thomas Middleton) adapted and shortened the original to produce the extant text published in the First Folio, but that remains our only authorised text. In others the text may have become manifestly corrupt or unreliable (Pericles or Timon of Athens) but no competing version exists. The modern editor can only regularise and correct erroneous readings that have survived into the printed versions.

The textual problem can, however, become rather complicated. Modern scholarship now believes Shakespeare to have modified his plays through the years, sometimes leading to two existing versions of one play. To provide a modern text in such cases, editors must face the choice between the original first version and the later, revised, usually more theatrical version. In the past editors have resolved this problem by conflating the texts to provide what they believe to be a superior Ur-text, but critics now argue that to provide a conflated text would run contrary to Shakespeare's intentions. In King Lear for example, two independent versions, each with their own textual integrity, exist in the Quarto and the Folio versions. Shakespeare's changes here extend from the merely local to the structural. Hence the Oxford Shakespeare, published in 1986, provides two different versions of the play, each with respectable authority. The problem exists with at least four other Shakespearean plays (Henry IV, part 1, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and Othello).

Reputation

Main articles: Shakespeare's reputation, Timeline of Shakespeare criticism

Shakespeare's reputation has grown exponentially since his own time, as illustrated in a timeline of Shakespeare criticism from the 17th to 20th century.

During his lifetime and shortly after his death, Shakespeare was well-regarded, but not considered the supreme poet of his age. He was included in some contemporary lists of leading poets, but he lacked the stature of Edmund Spenser or Philip Sidney. It is more difficult to assess his contemporary reputation as a playwright: Plays were considered ephemeral and somewhat disreputable entertainments rather than serious literature. The fact that his plays were collected in an expensively produced folio in 1623 (the only precedent being Ben Jonson's Workes of 1616) and the fact that that folio went into another edition within nine years, indicate that he was held in unusually high regard for a playwright.

File:John dryden.JPG
John Dryden wrote about "the incomparable Shakespeare" in 1668.

After the Interregnum stage ban of 1642—1660, the new Restoration theatre companies had the previous generation of playwrights as the mainstay of their repertory, most of all the phenomenally popular Beaumont and Fletcher team, but also Ben Jonson and Shakespeare. Old plays were often adapted for the Restoration stage, and where Shakespeare is concerned, this undertaking has seemed shockingly respectless to posterity. A notorious example is Nahum Tate's bowdlerized happy ending of King Lear of 1681, which held the stage until 1838. From the early 18th century, Shakespeare took over the lead on the English stage from Beaumont and Fletcher, never to relinquish it again.

In literary criticism, by contrast, Shakespeare held a unique position from the start. The unbending French neo-classical "rules" and the three unities of time, place, and action were never strictly followed in England, and practically all critics gave the more "correct" Ben Jonson second place to "the incomparable Shakespeare" (John Dryden, 1668), the follower of nature, the untaught genius, the great realist of human character. The long-lived myth that the Romantics were the first generation to truly appreciate Shakespeare and to prefer him to Ben Jonson is contradicted by accolades from Restoration and 18th-century writers such as John Dryden, Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope, and Samuel Johnson. The 18th century is also largely responsible for setting the text of Shakespeare's plays. Nicholas Rowe created the first truly scholarly text for the plays in 1709, and Edmund Malone's Variorum Edition (published posthumously in 1821) is still the basis of modern editions of the plays.

At the beginning of the 19th century, Romantic critics such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge raised admiration for Shakespeare to adulation or bardolatry, in line with the Romantic reverence for the poet as prophet and genius.

Identity and authorship

Main article: Shakespearean authorship

As noted above, there is considerable historical evidence of the existence of a William Shakespeare who lived in both Stratford-upon-Avon and London. The vast majority of academics identify this Shakespeare as the Shakespeare. Over the years however, such figures as Walt Whitman, Mark Twain ("Is Shakespeare Dead?"), Henry James, and Sigmund Freud have expressed disbelief that the man from Stratford-upon-Avon, christened William Shaksper or Shakspere, actually produced the works attributed to him. This scepticism is variously grounded: such as the lack of a single book to be found in his otherwise detailed will, the circumscribed social, education and travel opportunities available to the young author that could have served to prepare him, the differences in spellings of his name, the language of the works itself. Mainstream scholars consider all these supposed mysteries to be explicable.

Many attribute this debate to the scarcity and ambiguity of many of the historical records of this period. Even the painting in the National Portrait Gallery, London (illustration above) may not depict Shakespeare after all, and the well-known "Flower Portrait" at Stratford-upon-Avon was demonstrated (by analysing pigment and discovering chrome yellow) to be an early 19th-century forgery [1]. Various fringe scholars have suggested writers such as Sir Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe and even Queen Elizabeth I as alternative authors or co-authors for some or all of "Shakespeare's" work. Some of these claims necessarily rely on conspiracy theories to explain the lack of direct historical evidence for them, although advocates of alternative authors point to evidentiary gaps in the orthodox history.

Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford, an English nobleman and intimate of Queen Elizabeth, became the most prominent alternative candidate for authorship of the Shakespeare canon, after having been identified in the 1920s. Oxford partisans note the similarities between the Earl's life, and events and sentiments depicted in the plays and sonnets. Oxford was also contemporaneously identified as a poet and writer of some talent, and had the documented education, travel and life experience that one would ordinarily associate with works both as broad and detailed as Shakespeare.

A related question in mainstream academia addresses whether Shakespeare himself wrote every word of his commonly-accepted plays, given that collaboration between dramatists routinely occurred in the Elizabethan theatre. Serious academic work continues to attempt to ascertain the authorship of plays and poems of the time, both those attributed to Shakespeare and others. See academic Shakespearean authorship debates.

Controversy over Shakespeare's sexuality

In 1609 when his sonnets were initially published, likely without his approval, one hundred twenty-six of his love poems were addressed to a young man (or "fair lord"); and twenty-six to a married woman ("dark lady"). This edition was not widely dispersed and may have been suppressed. John Benson published another edition in 1640 and changed most of the pronouns from masculine to feminine so that readers would believe nearly all of them were inspired by the dark lady. Benson’s modified version was mass-produced and dominant. Edmund Malone re-published the original sonnets again in 1780; this time it was widely distributed. [2]

During Sonnet 13 Shakespeare calls the young man "dear my love" and in 15 announces that he is at "war with Time for love of you". In sonnet 18 he says "shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate", followed by sonnet 20 where he says that the man is his "master-mistress". Scholars for the past two hundred years have argued over whether Shakespeare acted on his bisexual attractions because of these themes. By 1944, the Variorum edition of his Sonnets contained an appendix with the conflicting views of nearly forty commentators.

The controversy began in 1780 when George Steevens, upon reading sonnet 20 where Shakespeare describes his young male friend as his "master-mistress" remarked, "it is impossible to read this fulsome panegyrick, addressed to a male object, without and equal mixture of disgust and indignation". [3] Other English scholars, who were dismayed of the possibility that one of their national heroes may have been a "sodomite", responded with Samuel Taylor Coleridge around 1800 saying that Shakespeare’s love was "pure" and in his sonnets there is "not even an allusion to that very worst of all possible vices". [4]

Critics in Continental Europe added more to the debate with a French reviewer in 1834 saying "He instead of she?... Can I be mistaken? Can these sonnets be addressed to a man? Shakespeare! Great Shakespeare? Did you feel yourself authorized by Virgil’s example?"

Douglas Bush in the preface to his 1961 Pelican edition said, "Since modern readers are unused to such ardor in masculine friendship and are likely to leap at the notion of homosexuality... we may remember that such an ideal, often exalted above the love of women could exist in real life, from Montaigne to Sir Thomas Browne and was conspicuous in Renaissance literature". [5] C.S. Lewis says that the sonnets are "too lover-like for ordinary male friendship" and he has never "found no real parallel to such language between friends in the sixteenth-century literature". [6] For example, Bush cites Montaigne as evidence of a platonic interpretation, but he said his male friendships were distinct from "that other, licentious Greek love". [7]

Shakespeare says that his love for the youth gives him sleepless nights and causes sharp anguish and fearful jealousy. The young man’s beauty is exactly the kind of "passion" that a beautiful woman might inspire. In sonnet 20 he theorizes that the youth was originally a female that Mother Nature had fallen in love with and — to resolve the dilemma of lesbianism — added a penis ("pricked thee out for women's pleasure"), which Shakespeare describes as "to my purpose nothing". Later in the same sonnet he tells the adolescent to sleep with women but only love him — "mine be thy love and thy love's use their treasure." Some have interpreted this line to infer that he ruled out sexual relations while openly saying that he was sexually aroused by the youth.

Similar evidence — or at least fuel for controversy — exists within the plays. In The Merchant of Venice, for example, the characters Bassanio and Antonio have a close friendship which may be paederastic (a sexual/mentoring relationship between an adult male and a young man, in which the adult helps his lover transistion to adulthood, including finding a wife, Bassanio enlists Antonio's help in courting the female Portia). Likewise, several plays such as Twelfth Night contain comedic situations in which a woman poses as a man, a device exploiting the fact that in Shakespeare's day men or boys of the theatrical troupe played women's parts. As Isaac Asimov notes in his Guide to Shakespeare, this allows situations where men playing women posing as men allow other men playing men to practice the art of wooing upon them.

Shakespeare was able to joke about homosexuality. Strains of dark humor run through tragedies like King Lear and Hamlet; in the latter play, the title character indulges in a gloomy discourse on human shortcomings before his friends, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. This speech, in Act II, scene ii, begins with Hamlet saying, "I have of late — but wherefore I know not — lost all my mirth". After several lines of melancholy exposition, Hamlet says, "Man delights not me — no, nor woman neither, though by your smiling you seem to say so."

It must be kept in mind that if Shakespeare had openly engaged in sexual relations with other males, he risked prosecution under sodomy laws of the time that could have resulted in the death penalty. However, in Elizabethan times, as today, an interest in one gender did not preclude an interest in the other, and the question of whether an Elizabethan was "gay" in a modern sense is anachronistic, as the concept of homosexuality did not emerge until the nineteenth century. While sodomy was a crime in the period there was no word for an exclusively homosexual identity (see History of homosexuality). One of Shakespeare’s greatest role-models, Christopher Marlowe, to whom he was thought to have alluded for a few sentences from his poem Hero and Leander, has also been claimed a homosexual. This claim has also provoked debate; see Marlowe's sexuality in that playwright's article.

Word coinage

Shakespeare provided the first print citations for many of the words (ode, addiction, alligator) and phrases ("my mind's eye," "one fell swoop") that have become and remained household words in our time.

See: Partial List of Shakespeare's Coinages National Geographic Article About Shakespeare's Coinages

Specialist acting companies and theatres

Shakespeare in the movies

Main article: Shakespeare movies

See also

Further reading

The most widely distributed online version of the text appears to be the early 90s "The Complete Moby™ Shakespeare", the base text for which is believed to have been the Stratford Town modern-spelling edition of 1911, edited by Arthur Bullen.

There appear to be the following versions in the public domain:

  • Versions based Directly on Folio Editions. The University of Virginia library at [[8]] carries versions of The First Folio and Early Quartos editions.
  • Versions Based on the 1866 Globe Edition of Clark and Wright.The version at the University of Virginia library, [[9]], explicitly calls itself the 1866 edition and claims to have been copy checked against its base text.
  • Versions based upon "The Complete Moby™ Shakespeare". There is no record of how errors in the 1911 base text have been corrected. Complete Moby versions of the plays in html format may be downloaded from MIT. The edition carried at Gutenberg is probably the Moby edition; unfortunately the Gutenberg files only give an indirect indication as to their origin.
  • Versions Based on The 1914, W. J. Craig, Oxford Edition. This is carried by bartleby.com but is only given in a form suitable for reading online, a scene at a time.
  • The wikisource edition. Probably derived from the Moby edition. This version can be expected to be edited to reflect modern understandings of the text.
Wikisource has original works by or about:
William Shakespeare
Wikiquote has quotations related to William Shakespeare.
The Wikibook Study Guide has a page on the topic of: Shakespeare

Notes

Template:Fnb Elizabethan English did not use standardised spelling; although Shakespeare's last name most frequently appears as Shakespeare, it also frequently appears as Shakespere, and sometimes as Shakespear, Shaksper and even Shaxberd [10].

  1. ^ Crompton, Louis, Homosexuality and Civilization, pp. 379
  2. ^ Rollins 1:55
  3. ^ Rollins 2:232-233
  4. ^ Pequigney, pp.64
  5. ^ Lewis, p. 503
  6. ^ Montaigne, p. 138
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