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Methamphetamine

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Methamphetamine is a synthetic stimulant drug which induces a strong feeling of euphoria and is highly addictive. Pure methamphetamine is a colorless crystalline solid, or a paste sold on the streets as crystal meth, glass, ice, or crystal. It is also sold as less pure crystalline powder called crank or speed, or in rock formation termed tweak, dope, or raw. It has become one of the world's most significant illicit drugs.

Methamphetamine's chemical structure
Methamphetamine's chemical structure

Methamphetamine

(S)-N-methyl-1-phenylpropan-2-amine

CAS number
537-46-2

ATC code

Chemical formula Template:Carbon10Template:Hydrogen15Template:Nitrogen
Molecular weight 149.24
Melting Point 175
Bioavailability Depends upon method of administration
Metabolism hepatic
Elimination half life 4-12 hours, 8 hours on average
Excretion renal
Pregnancy category C (USA)
Legal status

Schedule II (USA)
Class B (oral) (UK)
Class A (injectable) (UK)
Schedule I (Canada)

Delivery 5mg and 10mg tablets
Indicated for:

Recreational uses:

Other uses:

Contraindications:
Side effects:

Severe: (with chronic use)

Cardiovascular:

Endocrinal:

Eye:

Gastrointestinal:

Neurological:

  • altered brain chemistry

Psychological:

Skin:

Miscellaneous:

In some instances, these substances when found on the street are diluted or cut with inert substances like mannitol. In most instances, the methamphetamine is usually of a pure nature, but diluted mainly with the chemicals that were used to synthesize it.

Production

Methamphetamine is structurally similar to methcathinone, amphetamine, and other stimulants, and it may be produced from ephedrine or pseudoephedrine by chemical reduction. Most of the necessary chemicals are readily available in household products or over-the-counter medicines. This makes methamphetamine appear unusually easy to make, unlike cannabis and cocaine, which are both harvested directly from plants.

Pseudoephedrine hydrochloride and ephedrine hydrochloride are commonly available decongestant drugs without strong euphoric effects. There are many different syntheses for conversion which can be found on the internet, although these sources are sometimes not trustworthy, and most experienced 'cooks' learned from either chemistry classes or other 'cooks' in person. The synthesis involves moderately dangerous chemicals and processes that could be considered extremely dangerous.

These chemicals are commonly used by people without laboratory training in and around the household for a variety of household uses; however, the production of methamphetamine is not to be confused with these much safer household uses. In fact, when law enforcement finds a methamphetamine lab, they must have specially trained and certified professionals, wearing full hazardous materials protection suits, dismantle and dispose of the lab equipment and materials. It is estimated for every 1 pound of methamphetamine produced, 5 pounds of hazardous waste are also produced.

This can result in highly dangerous situations, as the by-products of production are highly toxic in most syntheses, and are sometimes dumped in unsafe places. An example is phosphine gas, which can be produced when the reaction is allowed to overheat, and which has killed operators of illegal "clan" (clandestine chemistry) or "meth" labs.

Methamphetamine can also be made from phenylacetone and methylamine, which are currently DEA list I chemicals.

Until the early 1990s, methamphetamine was made mostly in clandestine labs run by drug traffickers in Mexico and California; areas which are still the largest U.S. producers. Since then, however, authorities have discovered increasing numbers of small-scale methamphetamine labs all over the United States, commonly located in rural, suburban, or low-income areas spread throughout the US. The meth problem is most prevalent in suburban and rural areas of the Southwest and Midwest.

Recently mobile methamphetamine and hotel-based labs have caught the attention of both the news media and law enforcement. These have been seen as a public safety issue because of the increased exposure of the general public to hazardous chemicals, explosions and fires. In addition to these serious issues there is also the likelihood of a 'cook' being well armed. The police have responded in two ways, first by the creation of a number of specialized task forces and secondly by the education of those individuals likely to come in contact with persons involved in the production of methamphetamine. The Indiana state police found just 6 labs in 1995 compared to 1,260 in 2003.

On April 6, 2004, Oklahoma issued a state law prohibiting the non-prescription sale of certain over-the-counter medications known to contain ingredients used in meth production. Iowa enacted a law concerning the sale of precursors such as pseudoephedrine. This law requires that non-prescription drugs with pseudoephedrine be placed behind the pharmacist's counter. A person can only buy 330mg of pseudoephedrine per day. They must also show identification when purchasing the drug, and sign a logbook when purchasing pseudoephedrine. Oregon passed a similar law which adds that names of the purchasers are to be placed on a list for up to two years. In August, 2005, Oregon strengthened its anti-methamphetamine laws even further by passing legislation requiring a prescription to obtain drugs containing pseudoephedrine.

History

Methamphetamine was first synthesized in 1919 by the Japanese chemist A. Ogata. The method of synthesis was reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. Methamphetamine is closely related to amphetamine which was first synthesized the year 1887 by L. Edeleano, a German chemist. Over time the chemical's use, distribution, and place in society changed from insignificant, to controversially beneficial, to terrible infamy.

Later use included its distribution by the Allies and the Axis to troops during World War II under the name Pervitin. The Nazis, in particular, distributed methamphetamine widely to their soldiers, particularly to SS personnel and Wehrmacht forces in the Eastern Front. After World War II a massive supply of methamphetamine, formerly stocked by the Japanese military, became available in Japan; skyrocketing addiction and hardship followed.

The 1950s saw a high rise in the legal prescription of methamphetamine to the American public. Prescribed for everything from obesity to depression, methamphetamine, and amphetamines in general, involved a sizable part of the everyday American life ("Pop a pep pill").

File:Methlab.jpg
Meth lab.

The 1960s saw the start of the significant use of clandestine manufacture to supply methamphetamine. The five years from 1978 to 1983 are seen as the "golden years" of illicit methamphetamine manufacture. Until then drug laws were far behind the methods of production with the precursors, equipment and supply of such being almost freely available and in almost all cases legal to possess. Eventually, the U.S. government passed the Federal Analog Act in an attempt to combat the growing problem of designer drugs.

Starting in the 1980s and on into the start of the twenty-first century, the rural areas of the United States—especially the Midwest and South—have experienced a large rise, penetration, and saturation and even in some cases decline of methamphetamine use. Some see what saturation and decline have taken place as more of a natural trend of the consequences of abuse than a result of law enforcement; the damage done by the chemical has been so great that some choose to not use the drug as a result of either direct observation or word-of-mouth of the drug's effects. Nevertheless, many individuals feel that current methamphetamine abuse in the U.S. still constitutes an epidemic.

Current controversy

On August 8, 2005, the newsmagazine Newsweek devoted a cover story to methamphetamine and its abuse[1], which included a section that discussed criticism of the policies of the George W. Bush administration regarding meth. Critics feel that the Bush administration has not devoted enough resources to education about and prevention of meth use, in light of its widespread availability and the potentially grave consequences of long-term abuse. The Bush administration has countered with the position that cannabis is a dangerous gateway drug, and so prevention of cannabis use will prevent potential abusers from trying and becoming hooked on "hard" drugs such as meth. Meanwhile, the online magazine Slate posted an article concurrently with the Newsweek article (actually, slightly beforehand, on August 3) [2], attacking Newsweek for failing to appropriately cite sources and data to back up the claim that this is a "new" problem. The topic remains controversial.

Effects

Methamphetamine is a potent central nervous system stimulant that affects the brain by acting on the mechanisms responsible for regulating a class of neurotransmitters known as the biogenic amines or monoamine neurotransmitters. This broad class of neurotransmitters is generally responsible for regulating heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, appetite, attention, mood and responses associated with alertness or alarm conditions. Although the exact mechanism of action is unknown, it is generally believed that methamphetamine causes the release of these monoamines through the monoamine transporter as well as blocking the re-uptake of these neurotransmitters, causing them to remain within the synaptic cleft longer than otherwise. As in most neurotransmitter chemistry, its effects are adapted by the affected neurons by a decrease in the production of the neurotransmitters being blocked from re-uptake, leading to the tolerance and withdrawal effects. In medicine it is used as an appetite suppressant in treating obesity, treating anesthetic overdose and narcolepsy.

The acute effects of the drug closely resemble the physiological and psychological effects of the fight-or-flight response including increased heart rate and blood pressure, vasoconstriction, pupil dilation, bronchial dilation and increased blood sugar. The person who ingests meth will experience an increased focus and mental alertness and the elimination of the subjective effects of fatigue as well as a decrease in appetite. Many of these effects are broadly interpreted as euphoria or a sense of well-being, intelligence and power.

The 17th edition of The Merck Manual (1999) describes the effects of heavy use of methamphetamines in these terms:

Continued high doses of methamphetamine produce anxiety reactions during which the person is fearful, tremulous, and concerned about his physical well-being; an amphetamine psychosis in which the person misinterprets others' actions, hallucinates, and becomes unrealistically suspicious; an exhaustion syndrome, involving intense fatigue and need for sleep, after the stimulation phase; and a prolonged depression, during which suicide is possible (p. 1593 - ch. 195).

Depending on delivery method and dosage, a dose of methamphetamine will potentially keep the user awake with a feeling of euphoria for periods lasting 2–24 hours.

The acute effects decline as the brain chemistry starts to adapt to the chemical conditions and as the body metabolizes the chemical, leading to a rapid loss of the initial effect and a significant rebound effect as the previously saturated synaptic cleft becomes depleted of the same neurotransmitters that had previously been elevated. Many users then compensate by administering more of the drug to maintain their current state of euphoria and alertness. This process can be repeated many times, often leading to the user remaining awake for days, after which secondary sleep deprivation effects manifest in the user. Classic sleep deprivation effects include irritability, blurred vision, memory lapses, confusion, paranoia, hallucinations, nausea, and (in extreme cases) death. After prolonged use, the meth user will begin to become irritable, most likely due to lack of sleep.

Methamphetamine is reported to attack the immune system, so meth users are often prone to infections of all different kinds, one being an MRSA infection. This, too, may simply be a result of long-term sleep deprivation and/or chronic malnutrition.

It is a common belief that methamphetamine gives people super-human strength. This is not really true, but methamphetamine inhibits pain and increases metabolism, which allows a person to push muscles to points of failure that would otherwise be harder or impossible to reach. (See the article entitled Exercise and Stimulants for a better description of the factors involved.)

Other side effects include twitching, "jitteriness", repetitive behavior (known as "tweaking"), and jaw clenching or teeth grinding. It has been noted anecdotally that methamphetamine addicts lose their teeth abnormally fast; this may be due to the jaw clenching, although heavy meth users also tend to neglect personal hygiene, such as brushing teeth. It is often claimed that smoking methamphetamine speeds this process by leaving a crystalline residue on the teeth, and while this is apparently confirmed by dentists, no clinical studies have been done to investigate.

Some users exhibit sexually compulsive behavior and may engage in extended sexual encounters with one or more individuals, often strangers. This behavior is substantially more common among gay and bisexual male methamphetamine users than it is their heterosexual counterparts. As it is symptomatic of the user to continue taking the drug to combat fatigue, an encounter or series of encounters can last for several days. This compulsive behavior has created a link between meth use and sexually transmitted disease (STD) transmission, especially HIV and syphilis. This caused great concern among larger gay communities, particularly those in Atlanta, Miami, New York City, and San Francisco, leading to outreach programs and rapid growth in 12-step organizations such as Crystal Meth Anonymous. See Crystal and sex.

Addiction

Methamphetamine is an addictive drug. While withdrawal symptoms are less pronounced than alcohol or opiates (such as heroin), they are nonetheless physiological in nature and include seizures, narcolepsy, and stroke. Furthermore, the mental and social consequences of quitting can be severe and extremely difficult for the addict to experience. As with all addictions, relapse is a common occurrence.

In an article about his son's addiction to methamphetamine, a California writer who has also experimented with the drug put it this way:

[T]his drug has a unique, horrific quality. In an interview, Stephan Jenkins, the singer in the band Third Eye Blind, said that methamphetamine makes you feel 'bright and shiny.' It also makes you paranoid, incoherent and both destructive and pathetically and relentlessly self-destructive. Then you will do unconscionable things in order to feel bright and shiny again (David Sheff, "My Addicted Son," New York Times Magazine, February 6, 2005, p. 44).

Former users have noted that they feel stupid or dull when they quit using methamphetamine. This is because the brain is adapting a need for methamphetamine to think faster, or at what seems to be a higher level. Individuals with ADHD are often at especially higher risk for addiction to methamphetamine, because the drug often increases the user's ability to focus and reduces impulsivity, creating a mechanism in which one is better able to cope. For this reason, drugs like this must be used only under the supervision of a licensed psychiatrist. The individual with ADHD is susceptible to meth's adverse effects (see below), so prescription stimulants such as methylphenidate (Ritalin®), dextroamphetamine (Dexadrine®) and amphetamine salt (Adderall®)are overwhelmingly indicated.

With long-term methamphetamine use, enough dopamine will have flooded the brain to cause chemical cell damage. This often leads to slow thinking (which in turn requires that the addict use meth to 'fix' it), and depression. This is known colloquially as "The Vampire Life".

Very serious long-term meth abuse correlates highly with poor hygiene and general self-care (this is true of drug addicts in general), and many of the health risks inherent in administering the drug are often severely exascerbated by this. Poor hydration and infrequent dental hygiene strongly increase the risks of damage to teeth from smoking or snorting, while infrequent bathing increases the chance that minor skin rashes or irritations on the arm from needle use will progress to infection and complications. Generally poor maintenance of living conditions can increase the general risk of exposure to illness through a wide variety of malaise-causing agents, such as bacteria that may grow in poorly cleaned living spaces. Finally, if methamphetamine does in fact attack the immune system, it follows that the ability of the individual to resist any illness is compromised, and that heavy meth users, over time, become more susceptible to poor health and illness in general. Severe cases of addiction are often marked by many of these symptoms and hallmarks, which can work in combination to almost completely destroy the user's health.

Beneficial versus adverse effects

Beneficial effects of methamphetamine use are generally experienced immediately. Adverse effects occur with chronic use (more than 6–12 months).

Beneficial effects

  • Increased awareness and alertness
  • Greater motivation
  • Increased thinking and brain activity (short-term)
  • Weight loss (may also be an adverse effect, depending upon circumstances)
  • Heighted sexual stimulation

Adverse effects

Physical and chemical properties of Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine is an alkaloid similar in structure to amphetamine and MDMA (Ecstacy). Compared to most illegal drugs, methamphetamine is a simple molecule with a low molecular weight. Unlike freebase cocaine ("crack"), which is a waxy, smokeable form of cocaine, freebase methamphetamine is an oily liquid that has no use except in the production of street methamphetamine. Before the manufacturer (or "cook") can sell his drug, he must convert the oil to methamphetamine hydrochloride. Methamphetamine hydrochloride is a salt of methamphetamine, and is what most people think of when they think of street meth. On the street, this hydrochloride salt is called "crystal meth", "speed" "crank", "crystal", and dozens of other names.


Methods of use

Methamphetamine can be swallowed, snorted, smoked, dissolved in water and injected, or inserted anally (with or without dissolution in water). As with all addictive drugs, the potential for addiction is greater when it is delivered by methods that cause the concentration in the blood to rise quickly, principally because the effects desired by the user are felt more quickly and with a higher intensity than a moderated delivery mechanism. In fact, studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (and liklihood of addiction) is proportional to the rate that the blood level of the drug increases. Generally, injecting is the "fastest" mechanism (i.e., it causes the blood concentration to rise the most quickly in the shortest period of time), followed by smoking, then snorting, then swallowing. It is not entirely certain where anal insertion would fall on this list, but some scant anecdotal evidence puts the effects probably somewhere in between smoking and snorting.

Methamphetamine is a powerful nasal decongestant, so methamphetamine users who snort it often have very clear nasal cavities. However, there have been rare cases of people snorting so much meth that their nose cartilage deteriorates, though snorting cocaine is far more likely to cause nasal degeneration, due to its vasoconstrictive properties. Snorting methamphetamine may also cause tooth decay, since the nasal passages are directly connected to the mouth region, and it is theorized that damaging crystalline particles can still attach to the teeth. Another theory is that the drug directly affects calcium balance in the body.

Methamphetamine is commonly smoked in glass pipes, or in aluminum foil heated by a flame underneath. This method is also known as "chasing the dragon". Methamphetamine must be heated (not burned) to cause the desired smoke. Smoking methamphetamine is probably the most impure form of ingestion. In addition to the possible effects on teeth, it is very damaging to the lungs. Methamphetamine users who smoke it sometimes experience mild asthma, which can be countered by inhaling salbutamol aerosol spray, or epinephrine aerosol. Another problem with smoking meth is the potential presence of oxidation byproducts created when the heated drug comes in contact with air. Even if the initial drug is pure methamphetamine, the act of smoking it produces other chemicals, some of which may be toxic.

Injection is a popular method for use, but potentially carries with it quite serious risks. The hydrochloride salt of methamphetamine is soluble in water; injection users may use any dose from 200mg to over a gram in one I.V. dose using a small needle. In methamphetamine research, injection users often do not experience severe tooth decay, presumably because there is no residue left as with smoking it. But injection users experience greater jaw-clenching than users who snort or smoke it, since injecting methamphetamine has a much more powerful effect. This can cause loose teeth, so injection users still do lose their teeth. Also, this method of ingestion brings the risk of infection; injection users often experience skin rashes (sometimes called "speed bumps") and all kinds of infections due to the methamphetamine damage to the skin. As with any injected drug, if a group of users shares a common needle without sterilization procedures, very grave blood-borne diseases such as HIV or hepatitis can be transmitted as well.

Very little research has focused on anal insertion as a method, and anecdotal evidence of its effects is infrequently discussed, possibly due to social taboos in many cultures regarding the anus. This is often known within communities that use meth for sexual stimulation as a "booty bump", and is anecdotally reported to increase sexual pleasure[3] while the effects of the drug last. The rectum is where the majority of the drug would likely be uptaken through the mucous membranes lining the walls. Lack of direct exposure to teeth probably insulates users from the majority of damaging dental effects, but damage to sensitive anal and rectal tissues is a risk. Weakness in these tissues may increase the risk of transmission of sexually-transmitted infections during sex. If enough methamphetamine is taken so that not all of it is completely dissolved, abrasion of any prophylactic devices (such as condoms) used during sex can occur due to friction with undissolved meth crystals. This can contribute to breakage of the prophylactic, and increased risk of disease transmission. (See Crystal and sex for further information on other risk factors.)

The least detrimental method of taking methamphetamine may simply be oral administration. The effects are moderated out over time to a greater degree, and neither teeth, skin, nor nasal passages are directly exposed to potentially harmful chemicals (assuming the user is careful not to allow pure crystal meth to come in contact with these parts of the body during ingestion). The less intense "hit" may make this a less popular current choice for administration.

Legality

Methamphetamine is classified as a Schedule II substance by the DEA in the United States. Internationally, methamphetamine is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances[4]. While there is technically no difference between the laws regarding methamphetamine and other controlled stimulants, most medical professionals are averse to prescribing it due to its status in society. Further, there is some anecdotal evidence that the DEA audits such prescriptions on a far more regular basis than similar drugs.

Methamphetamine is legally marketed in the United States under the trade name Desoxyn, manufactured by Abbott Laboratories. Generic formulations of the drug are also available.

Methamphetamine has become a major focus of the 'war on drugs' in the US in recent years. In some localities (e.g. Pierce County in Washington state, in 2000), special task forces were formed by police to attack the problem of rampant methamphetamine production. In some areas of the United States, manufacturing methamphetamine is punishable by a mandatory ten-year prison sentence. In some cases, however, judges have ruled for life in prison without the possibility of parole, especially in cases where victims were killed by overdoses or impure substances.

In the UK, methamphetamine is classified as a Class B drug (under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. The maximum penalty for possession is five years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is 14 years. If methamphetamine is prepared for injection, it is re-classified as a Class A drug. The maximum penalty for such possession is seven years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is life imprisonment.

In 2005, Canada increased the maximum penalty for the production and distribution of methamphetamine from 10 years to life in prison, placing it on par with cocaine and heroin offences.

Street names

A handful of methamphetamine pills

Methamphetamine has many street names; it was known as rain in the 1960s, and terms in popular use today include shit, pope-dope, glass, ice, crystal, or tina for purer forms, or as less pure crystalline powder termed crank or speed, and in rock form as tweak, dope, or raw (in Hawaii, the slang term batu is often used). Parts of North Texas use the name glory. Named for the "glorious" feeling experienced during a first or good high. In New Zealand, the term "P" is used. "Crystal meth" is the crystalline form of methamphetamine. TIK,as the drug is referred to in South Africa has spread like an epidemic not previously witnessed with any other substance abuse. The lack of education, overall awareness and knowledge of the reasons, causes, effects and corrective measures and areas of required funding to resist the eventual social calamity if not addressed by the highest order is a huge cause of concern. In its purest form, it is commonly referred to as "glass" or "ice". This is because it appears to be broken shards of glass or crushed ice. The term ice has also been used for a less common illicit stimulant, 4-methylaminorex, which often causes confusion.

As methamphetamine was quite popular in Japan after World War II, the nickname shabu has persisted. While some street folk may now call it just "shabs", the origins of this nickname come from the Japanese word for "swish". Either the Japanese commonly smoked it, or the name swish came from the behavior of the people under the influence. Chorea (or St. Vitus Dance) is quite commonly seen as a symptom of prolonged use. In Japan, meth usage also now seems to be quite taboo (people say that the person who shakes their leg makes the other people around them 'lose their fortune', and sometimes older Japanese folk will hold your leg completely still until you have stopped shaking). A rather large percentage of Japanese had become dependent on the drug for profit, motivation, or entertainment soon after World War II. The Japanese banned the drug soon after World War II, adding to growing yakuza businesses. The leaders of large yakuza began to control supplies which had once been produced for military purposes. A rather large underworld is still associated with the drug in Japan, with some people being associated with a society separate from most of the law abiding citizens of Japan based purely on this chemical.

Nazi Dope generally refers to methamphetamine made with anhydrous ammonia, since it is rumored that this was the way the Nazis synthesized it in World War II. This same method is sometimes called annie's dope or just annie.

Yaba are methamphetamine tablets, often colored and flavored as candy. Yaba means "crazy drug" in the Thai language and is popular in East Asia and Southeast Asia, where the drug is produced.

TIK is the street name of methamphetamine used by a sharply increasing number of addicts in the Western Cape province of South Africa.

The origins of the exclusively used South African term 'Tik' was coined in mid 1996 by the initial group of 20 to 30 users, all in their mid 30's and residing in middle/upper class Cape Town, all financially secure professional or self-employed entrepreneurs. A single source & limited weekly supply of approx 30 grams methamphetamine that was adulterated (cut) with Epson salt (magnesium sulphate) was sold by a well known regular dealer/supplier of 'E's' & badly cut coke to this circle of aquaintainces .'Ice' as it was commonly referred to, was sprinkled on tin foil, heated beneath with a lighter to allow the encircled users to jointly inhale the fumes through straws. The Epson salts caused the product to form an instant crust on the foil, necessitating a user to periodically crush the decreasing product with their index finger to a powder form to prevent wastage through burning.

The Afrikaans term for typing is to ‘TIK’- a typewriter is called a ‘TIK MASJIEN’. Extraordinary long periods of time was spent by some of these users in front of PCs through the stimulating effects of the 'Ice'. As novices, one finger typing was the norm. The combination of using the same finger for the periodic ritual of tapping (tikking), their crusty 'Ice Fix' neatly centered on the tin-foil beside them, the phrase of " I'm Tikking right now " was the reply to a question from another user as to their current activity.

Thus, a descriptive term for methamphetamine was coined by these early drug users, who thought it would give their 'secret wonder drug' its exclusive anonymity, especially when referred to in public. Now, nearly 10 years later its the most widely used slang term in the working class suburbs that decribes the product,the ritual and the state of the user: "Hy is lekker dik getik!" - "He is thoroughly tweaked up!"

Books

See also

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