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Terrorism, originating from the French 18th century word terrorisme (under the Terror), is the term commonly used to refer to the calculated use of violence or the threat of violence, against a civilian population, for the purpose of producing fear usually for some political end. In rhetorical use, "terrorism" is a political term-of-art—it's use depends on the local political context wherin it is used. Misuse of the term often arises when it is applied to non-violent groups which have a non-direct political association with a violent faction.

The term "terrorist" is label for one who is an active participant in a terrorist act, be it through direct personal action, or through direct funding or logistical support in the goal of executing a terrorist act. The term is often over-generalized to include "moral support" for a political agenda that is associated with a "terrorist" group. Within a particular political context, it's use is typically avoided, when discussing violence by violent actors who happen to function within the locally acceptible political context.

Definitions

There is no universally accepted definition of terrorism. One 2003 study by the U.S. Army [1] stated that over 100 definitions have been counted. Some examples:

  • In the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations: "...the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85).
  • In the current U.S. national security strategy: "premeditated, politically motivated violence against innocents."
  • According to the United States Department of Defense: the "calculated use of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or intimidate governments or societies in pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological."
  • The British Terrorism Act 2000, defines terrorism so as to include not only attacks on military personnel, but also acts not usually considered violent, such as shutting down a website whose views one dislikes.

Although the exact meaning of the term is disputed, it is commonly held that the distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its deliberate and specific selection of civilians as targets, a choice designed to attract wide publicity and cause extreme levels of public shock, outrage and fear. Terrorists believe that such conditions will help bring about the political or religious changes they seek. Often their strategies are based on provoking disproportionate reactions from states.

Acts of revolutionary or guerrilla warfare usually are not considered terrorism, unless the revolutionaries or guerrillas deliberately select civilians as targets of violence. Asymmetric warfare and low-intensity warfare are military terms for tactics that can include terrorism or guerilla warfare.

The question of motive is important in distinguishing terrorism. For example, a gang of bank robbers who kill the bank manager, blow up the vault and escape with the contents would normally not be classed as terrorists, because their motive was profit. However, if the gang were to execute the same assault with the intent of causing a crisis in public confidence in the banking system, followed by a run on the banks and a subsequent destabilization of the economy, then the gang would certainly be classed as terrorists.

Some hold that terrorism can be committed by governments, although others consider governments incapable of terrorism by definition (see State Terrorism).

Terrorists are not protected by the laws of war because they cannot claim lawful combatant status.

Problems with the definition

In the post-9-11 context, some contend that the term terrorist is overly politicized. They argue that it is used not to describe a type of behavior, but as a label to demonize an enemy in terms that convey moral repulsion and outrage.

Examples of terrorism

Most people would agree that the following incidents are examples of domestic and international terrorism: the Oklahoma City bombing (April 19, 1995), the Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland (August 15, 1998), the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks in New York, USA, the Munich massacre of Israeli Olympic athletes in 1972, the destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988. See List of terrorist incidents for more examples.

The deadliest terrorist attack committed in recent history was the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks on the World Trade Center in New York. The deadliest terrorist attack ever planned was Operation Bojinka; the first phase, which called for the death of Pope John Paul II and the bombing of 11 airliners, had a prospective death toll of about 4,000 if it had succeeded. The plot was aborted after an apartment fire in Manila, Philippines on January 5, 1995, exposed the plot to police. The terrorists were slightly more than two weeks away from implementing their plot.

Since 1968, the US State Department has tallied deaths due to terrorism. In 1985, it counted 816 deaths, the highest up to that time. The deaths decreased over the years, then rose to 3,295 in 2001, most as a result of the September 11 Terrorist Attacks. In 2003, however, more than 1,000 people died as a result of terrorism, the highest toll for any year with no one huge terrorist attack (like 9/11). Many of these deaths occurred from suicide bombings in Chechnya, Israel, and Iraq.

Some famous terrorist organizations of the 20th century include:

Terrorism is difficult for governments to control or prevent, especially when some of its practitioners are willing to risk their lives or (in some cases) even to embrace certain death. Terrorism can be fought and minimized. When the population among whom the terrorists reside can be isolated from the target population, terrorism can be greatly reduced, if not marginalized. A few governments such as Iraq (before the overthrow of Saddam Hussein), Syria, Pakistan, Libya, the United States, Yemen and the countries that supported the Taliban regime in Afghanistan have been accused of promoting or protecting certain terrorist groups.

History

During the French Revolution (1789 - 1799), the most severe period of the rule of the Committee of Public Safety (1793 - 1795) was labelled "The Terror" (1793 - 1794). Some argue that this period is an example of state-sponsored terrorism. Certainly it induced fear and outrage not only in the domestic population of France, but also throughout the European aristocracy.

Before the 19th century, some terrorists went out of their way to avoid casualties among innocents not involved in the conflict. For example, Russian radicals intent on the assassination of Alexander II of Russia (reigned March 2, 1855 - March 13, 1881) cancelled several actions out of concern that they might injure women, children, elderly persons, or other innocents. When the assassination was finally performed, only the Tsar, his assassin Ignatei Grinevitski and a few members of the Tsar's escort are known to have been killed or wounded -- no "innocents" were hurt.

Today, the use of terrorism has become more popular among the alienated It can have enormous psychological impact on the public through extensive media coverage, and weapons technology improvements have made it possible for a "super-empowered angry man" (in the words of Thomas Friedman) to cause a large amount of destruction by himself or with only a few conspirators. Terrorism is often the last resort of the desperate. It can be, and has been, conducted by small as well as large organizations.

Historically, groups have resorted to terrorism when they believe all other avenues, including economics, protest, public appeal, and organized warfare, hold no hope of success (also see rioting). This suggests that perhaps one approach to combat terrorism is to ensure that in any case where there is a population feeling oppressed, that at least some avenue of resolving their problems is kept open, even if the population in question is in the minority on an opinion.

Other rationales for terrorism include attempts to gain or consolidate power either by instilling fear in the population to be controlled, or by stimulating another group into becoming a hardened foe, thereby setting up polarizing us-versus-them dynamics (also see nationalism and fascism). A third common rationale for terrorism is to demoralize and paralyze one's enemy with fear; this sometimes works, but can also stiffen the enemy's resolve. Often, several of these reasons may explain the actions of a particular group. In general, retribution against terrorists can result in escalating tit-for-tat violence; however, it is often felt that if the consequences of engaging in terrorism are not swift and punitive, the deterrent to other terrorist groups is diminished.

The existing order within countries or internationally depends on compromises and agreements between various groups and interests which were made to resolve past conflicts. Over time these arrangements become less relevant to the current situation. Some terrorist acts seem calculated to disrupt the existing order and provoke conflicts in the expectation that it will lead to a new order more favorable to their interests.

Terrorism relies heavily on surprise. Terrorist attacks can trigger sudden transitions into conflict or war. It is not uncommon after a terrorist attack for a number of unassociated groups to claim responsibility for the action; this may be considered "free publicity" for the organization's aims or plans. Because of its anonymous and often self-sacrificial nature, it is not uncommon for the reasons behind the action to remain unknown for a considerable period.

International Conventions on Terrorism

There are eleven major multilateral conventions related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism.

In addition to these conventions, other instruments may be relevant to particular circumstances, such as bilateral extradition treaties, the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, and the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. Moreover, there are now a number of important United Nations Security Council and General Assembly Resolutions on international terrorism, including three important Security Council resolutions dealing with Libya's conduct in connection with the sabotage of Pan Am Flight 103 on December 21, 1988, which includes UN Security Council Resolutions 731 (January 21, 1992); 748 (March 31, 1992) and 883 (November 11, 1993).

The following list identifies the major terrorism conventions and provides a brief summary of some of the major terms of each instrument. In addition to the provisions summarized below, most of these conventions provide that parties must establish criminal jurisdiction over offenders (e.g., the state(s) where the offense takes place, or in some cases the state of nationality of the perpetrator or victim).

  1. Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board Aircraft (Tokyo Convention, agreed 9/63--safety of aviation):
    • applies to acts affecting in-flight safety;
    • authorizes aircraft commanders to impose reasonable measures, including restraint, on any person they have reason to believe has committed or is about to commit such an act, when necessary to protect the safety of the aircraft and for related reasons;
    • requires contracting states to take custody of offenders and to return control of the aircraft to the lawful commander.
  2. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (Hague Convention, agreed 12/70--aircraft hijackings):
    • makes it an offense for any person on board an aircraft in flight [to] "unlawfully, by force or threat thereof, or any other form of intimidation, [to] seize or exercise control of that aircraft" or to attempt to do so;
    • requires parties to the convention to make hijackings punishable by "severe penalties;"
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the convention.
  3. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation (Montreal Convention, agreed 9/71--applies to acts of aviation sabotage such as bombings aboard aircraft in flight):
    • makes it an offense for any person unlawfully and intentionally to perform an act of violence against a person on board an aircraft in flight, if that act is likely to endanger the safety of that aircraft; to place an explosive device on an aircraft; and to attempt such acts or be an accomplice of a person who performs or attempts to perform such acts;
    • requires parties to the convention to make offenses punishable by "severe penalties;"
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the convention.
  4. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (agreed 12/73--protects senior government officials and diplomats):
    • defines internationally protected person as a Head of State, a Minister for Foreign Affairs, a representative or official of a state or of an international organization who is entitled to special protection from attack under international law;
    • requires each party to criminalize and make punishable "by appropriate penalties which take into account their grave nature," the intentional murder, kidnapping, or other attack upon the person or liberty of an internationally protected person, a violent attack upon the official premises, the private accommodations, or the means of transport of such person; a threat or attempt to commit such an attack; and an act "constituting participation as an accomplice;"
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the convention.
  5. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Nuclear Materials Convention, agreed 10/79--combats unlawful taking and use of nuclear material):
    • criminalizes the unlawful possession, use, transfer, etc., of nuclear material, the theft of nuclear material, and threats to use nuclear material to cause death or serious injury to any person or substantial property damage;
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the convention.
  6. International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages (Hostages Convention, agreed 12/79):
    • provides that "any person who seizes or detains and threatens to kill, to injure, or to continue to detain another person in order to compel a third party, namely, a State, an international intergovernmental organization, a natural or juridical person, or a group of persons, to do or abstain from doing any act as an explicit or implicit condition for the release of the hostage commits the offense of taking of hostages within the meaning of this Convention;"
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the convention.
  7. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation (agreed 2/88--extends and supplements Montreal Convention):
    • extends the provisions of the Montreal Convention (see No. 3 above) to encompass terrorist acts at airports serving international civil aviation.
  8. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, (agreed 3/88--applies to terrorist activities on ships):
    • establishes a legal regime applicable to acts against international maritime navigation that is similar to the regimes established against international aviation;
    • makes it an offense for a person unlawfully and intentionally to seize or exercise control over a ship by force, threat, or intimidation; to perform an act of violence against a person on board a ship if that act is likely to endanger the safe navigation of the ship; to place a destructive device or substance aboard a ship; and other acts against the safety of ships;
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the convention.
    • Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (agreed 3/88--applies to terrorist activities on fixed offshore platforms):
    • establishes a legal regime applicable to acts against fixed platforms on the continental shelf that is similar to the regimes established against international aviation;
    • requires parties that have custody of offenders to either extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
    • requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal proceedings brought under the protocol.
  9. Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Identification (agreed 3/91--provides for chemical marking to facilitate detection of plastic explosives, e.g., to combat aircraft sabotage). Consists of two parts: the Convention itself, and a Technical Annex which is an integral part of the Convention.
    • designed to control and limit the used of unmarked and undetectable plastic explosives (negotiated in the aftermath of the Pan Am 103 bombing);
    • parties are obligated in their respective territories to ensure effective control over "unmarked" plastic explosive, i.e., those that do not contain one of the detection agents described in the Technical Annex;
    • generally speaking, each party must, among other things: take necessary and effective measures to prohibit and prevent the manufacture of unmarked plastic explosives; take necessary and effective measures to prevent the movement of unmarked plastic explosives into or out of its territory; take necessary measures to exercise strict and effective control over possession and transfer of unmarked explosives made or imported prior to the entry-into-force of the convention; take necessary measures to ensure that all stocks of such unmarked explosives not held by the military or police are destroyed or consumed, marked, or rendered permanently ineffective within three years; take necessary measures to ensure that unmarked plastic explosives held by the military or police, are destroyed or consumed, marked, or rendered permanently ineffective within fifteen years; and, take necessary measures to ensure the destruction, as soon as possible, of any unmarked explosives manufactured after the date-of-entry into force of the convention for that state.
    • does not itself create new offenses that would be subject to a prosecution or extradition regime, although all states are required to ensure that provisions are complied within their territories.
  10. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing (agreed 12/97--expands the legal framework for international cooperation in the investigation, prosecution, and extradition of persons who engage in terrorist bombings):
    • creates a regime of universal jurisdiction over the unlawful and intentional use of explosives and other lethal devices in, into, or against various defined public places with intent to kill or cause serious bodily injury, or with intent to cause extensive destruction of the public place;
    • like earlier conventions on protected persons and hostage taking, requires parties to criminalize, under their domestic laws, certain types of criminal offenses, and also requires parties to extradite or submit for prosecution persons accused of committing or aiding in the commission of such offenses.

During the negotiations on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, many states supported adding terrorism to the list of crimes over which the court would have jurisdiction. This proposal was not adopted. However the Statute provides for a review conference to be held seven years after the entry into force of the Statute. This review will consider (among other things) an extension of the court's jurisdiction to include terrorism.

Types of Terrorism

Six broad categories of terrorist organizations can be identified, though the distinctions between them are not always precise. In addition to this classification, terrorism can also be classified by its range of operations into domestic terrorism and international terrorism.

State Terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

According to Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, "State terrorism is a political system whose rule of recognition permits and/or imposes a clandestine, unpredictable, and diffuse application, even regarding clearly innocent people, of coercive means prohibited by the proclaimed judicial ordinance. State terrorism obstructs or annuls judicial activity and transforms the government into an active agent in the struggle for power."

The US operated the School of the Americas in Panama to train Latin American military personnel, formally in counterinsurgency. The alumni often formed the core of security agencies in Latin America that supported military dictators and made use of torture.

Almost all the countries in Latin America have experienced periods of state terrorism under dictatorial or military governments, pushed by the CIA's Operation Condor; it was common that the initial three to five years after a coup d'état were characterized by violence, arbitrary detentions, exile, torture, and "disappearances".

The population of the Soviet Union suffered state terrorism during the Stalin era. Millions were arrested, sometimes arbitrarily, forced to sign ridiculous confessions, and executed or sent off to the Gulag labor camps. Communist regimes in other countries also practiced state terrorism to control the population, but to a lesser degree than the Soviet Union.

During World War II (September 1, 1939 - August 15, 1945) both the Axis Powers and the Allies were responsible for the deaths of numerous civilians not directly involved in the fighting.

The Nazis systematized the practice of executing hostages in response to resistance actions (considered as terrorist by them).

World War II was also notable for the strategic bombing of cities. Nazi Germany's bombing of London and other major British cities is known as the Blitz and caused the deaths of an estimated 42,000 civilians. The United Kingdom and the United States used fire-bomb attacks on Dresden between February 13 and February 15, 1945. Dresden was largely destroyed and estimates of the number of civilians killed vary from as few as 35,000 to as many as 135,000. The USA's bombing of Tokyo is estimated to have killed 83,000 civilians. The atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) are estimated to have killed about 70,000 and 39,000 civilians respectively; these numbers do not include longer-terms deaths from radiation poisoning. It has been argued that these acts qualify as state terrorism as they specifically targeted civilian rather than military targets. Others have argued for military justification of these acts as they did manage to somewhat weaken the enemy state. The later two attacks are believed to have forced Japan into surrendering and so ending the war.

Some claim Israeli actions against the Palestinian population are an example of state terrorism. Others disagree, claiming Israeli actions are not aimed specifically at harming Palestinian civilians, but are rather a part of guerrilla warfare directed against the organizers and active participants in terrorist attacks against Israeli civilians.

State terrorism is backed by state-funded propaganda, ostensibly for "National Security" reasons; the state may argue that the measures are short-term, that the government is in state of war against guerrilla or terrorist groups (sometimes, groups loyal to a previous, deposed government), and that they are working to restore the "Constitution" and "democracy".

The most pervasive elements of state terrorism are detention without judicial process, extrajudicial or summary executions, and secret trials. A terrorist group that achieves power may institute a dictatorship.

States widely classed as 'terrorist' include:

Anarchists believe that all states are founded on violence and therefore the term 'terrorist state' is tautological. As with other uses of the term 'terrorism', the term 'state terrorism' is highly controversial. Many of those who believe in the reality of 'state terrorism' would classify Britain, Israel and/or the United States as leading terrorist states.

Nationalist Terrorism

Main article: Nationalist terrorism

Nationalist terrorists seek to form a separate state for their own group, and try to draw attention to their fight for "national liberation".

Examples of Nationalist Terrorist Groups:

Religious Terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism

Religious terrorists use violence to further what they see as divinely commanded purposes. (See also Religious intolerance).

Examples of Religious Terrorist Groups:

Left-wing Terrorism

Main article: Left-wing terrorism

Left-wing terrorists wish to undermine or destroy capitalism and replace it with a communist or socialist government.

Examples of Left-Wing Terrorist Groups:

Right-Wing Terrorism

Main article: Right-wing terrorism

Right-wing, or "neo-Fascist", terrorists seek to abolish liberal democratic governments and create authoritarian regimes in their place. They frequently attack immigrants and are both racist and xenophobic, often specifically anti-semitic.

During the 1980s, right-wing Latin American terrorist groups, known as death squads, often consisted of members of the armed forces who acted in an unofficial capacity to terrorize dissidents, generally with the implicit support or protection of high ranking officials. As private groups with overlapping memberships with the military, they were able to carry out a terror campaign on the government's behalf while giving the government a form of plausible deniability. The most famous victims of this campaign of death-squad terrorism in El Salvador were four American nuns in 1980, and Archbishop Oscar Romero also during that year. In a civil trial ending in July of 2002, a jury in Miami, Florida convicted two former Salvadoran defence officials of the torture of three Salvadoran dissidents, and ordered them to pay $54.6 million to the plaintiffs.

In many other cases, right-wing terrorists are among the least organized; most of them belong to various neo-Nazi groups.

Anarchist Terrorism

Main article: Anarchism and violence

Anarchist terrorism was much more prevalent from the 1870s to the 1920s than it is at present. Several heads of state were assassinated, including King Umberto I of Italy (July 29, 1900) and President of the United States William McKinley (September 14, 1901). The justification of Anarchist terrorism was that such acts would make anarchist ideas famous; however, there were also many terrorists and criminals who called themselves "anarchists" but had little in common with philosophical anarchists and often rejected any association with these individuals. This policy was known as "propaganda by the deed". Some Anarchists are found participating with the more violent elements of demonstrations, such as the anti-globalism protests in the 1990s and 2000s. There are significant sections of the Anarchist movement which do not support terrorism or violence, including many organizations and individuals that advocate pacifism.

Front Organizations

Terrorist organizations sometimes create front organizations, sometimes legitimate, to conceal activities or provide logistical or financial support to the illegal activities. "Import-export" companies are favorite front organizations for terrorist groups.

Famous Terrorists and Former Terrorists

The classification of a person or group as "terrorist" is nearly always disputed. Below, we list some of the better-known individuals who are regarded as terrorists (or as having been terrorists in the past) by a significant body of opinion apart from the victims of acts with which they have rightly or wrongly been linked. In many, perhaps most, cases there is also a significant body of contrary opinion. Inclusion of many people in this one list does not indicate any type of equivalence between them. We have not included leaders of governments even when they are widely regarded as guilty of "state terrorism".

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