Portuguese-based creole languages

Portuguese Creole is a creole language based on the Portuguese language.

Introduction

Portugal in the Age of Discovery and colonization created a linguistic contact with native languages of the discovered lands and thus pidgins were formed. Until the 18th century, these Portuguese pidgins were used as Lingua Franca in Asia and Africa. Later, these pidgins were expanded grammatically and lexically, as it became a native language. Today, we call these languages as Portuguese Creoles. The Portuguese Creoles or Portuguese-based Creoles are the ones that have almost all lexical content bases on Portuguese, while grammatically they are very different.

According to the monogenetic theory of pidgins advanced by Hugo Schuchardt, most of the pidgins and creoles of European base in the world derived from a version of Lingua Franca relexified by the Portuguese. This "broken Portuguese" would be used by European sailors whenever they met new peoples. Items like the preposition na would be marks of this common origin.

The Portuguese-based Creoles are classified by geographical order and by substrate language (the language that contacted with Portuguese):

In Africa, there are the High-Guinean Creoles: Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and Gambia, known as Kriols. The Creoles of Cape Verde are also included in this genre but they are named natively as Kriolus (or Crioulos). There is also the Creoles of Gulf of Guinea : São Tomé and Príncipe and Equatorial Guinea.

In Asia, we have the Portuguese-Indian Creoles: India and Sri Lanka.Portuguese-Malay Creoles: Malaysia, Indonesia, East Timor and Singapore. Portuguese-Chinese Creoles: Macao and Hong-Kong.

Lastly, we have the Portuguese-American Creoles: Antilles and Suriname. Possibly in the past there were Portuguese Creoles in Brazil, but the Portuguese population was so large that they were rapidly extinct. Almost half of Brazilians are of Portuguese origin.

High-Guinean Creoles

Kriol (Creoles of Guinea-Bissau and Senegal)

Guinea-Bissau Creoles The Creoles of Guinea-Bissau are known as Kriol (or Crioulo da Guiné); it is originated from the Kriol that was spoken mainly in the Portuguese Praças (Eng. Plazas) from Senegal to Sierra Leone, in early 16th century. The Creole of Guinea-Bissau is among the first Portuguese Creoles that came to exist. Portuguese merchants and settlers almost immediately started to mix with locals, what became a rule among Portuguese explorers and the main reason for the large number of Portuguese Creoles throughout the world. This mixed race was called Lançados (Eng. launched) and contributed for the spread of the Portuguese language by a pidgin. It is sometimes considered that there are, at least, three Portuguese Creoles in Guinea-Bissau: Creole of Bissau and Bolama, Creole of Batafa and Creole of Cacheu. The Creoles have as substrate language the language of the local peoples: Mandingas, Manjacos, Pepéis and others, but most of the lexicon (marginally 80%) comes from Portuguese. The Creoles of Guinea-Bissau are, normally treated as one, by the use of the country’s capital one - Bissau, because they obviously share most features and it is the most spoken.

external link: Crioulo da Guiné: Declaraçom Universal di Diritu di Omis Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Kriol

Crioulo (Creoles of Cape Verde)

Each inhabited island of Cape Verde has its own creole (crioulo). The greatest differences are between the creole of Santiago and Santo Antão.

The Sotavento Creoles: Creole (Kriolu) of Santiago, Maio, Fogo and Brava.
The Barlavento Creoles: Creole (Criol) of São Vicente (Criol de Soncente), São Nicolau, Sal, Boavista and Santo Antão

external link: Declaraçon di mundo intêro di Dréto di tudo homi co tudo mudjer Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Kriolu of Santiago (Badiu).

Creoles of Gulf of Guinea

Angolar

Língua Angolar (or Lungua N`golá) is mainly spoken in south of the São Tomé Island (main island of São Tomé and Príncipe) and by some in the coast of the same island by Angolar fishermen. The Creole uses, as substrate, a dialect of Umbundo, a Bantu language from inland Angola, but is extensively influenced by Portuguese, mainly in lexicon level. This is not a major São Tomean Creole.

Fá d'Ambô

The Creole of the island of Ano Bom (Equatorial Guinea) acknowledged as Falar de Ano Bom (Fá d’ambô or even Fla d’Ambu) is analogous to Forro, spoken by 9,000 people in Ano Bom and Fernando Póo Islands. In fact, Fá d'Ambô is derived from Forro as it shares the same structure (82% of lexicon). In the 15th century, the island was uninhabited and discovered by Portugal but, by the 18th century, Portugal exchanged it and some other territories in Africa for Uruguay with Spain. Spain wanted to get territory in Africa, and Portugal wanted to enlarge even more the territory that they saw as the “New Portugal” (Brazil). Nevertheless, the populace of Ano Bom was against the shift and was hostile towards Spaniards. This with the isolation towards mainland Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Príncipe is just 400 km from the island as assured the maintenance of its identity.

Fá d’ambô has gained some words of Spanish origin (10% of lexicon), but some words are dubious in origin because Spanish and Portuguese are also based on the same language (Spoken Latin or Vulgar Latin).

external link: Declaraçón Universal di Dirêtu di Hómé Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Forro (co-dialect of Fá d'Ambô)

Forro

São Tomé is an island of the Gulf of Guinea revealed in the 15th century by the Portuguese, it was uninhabited, but it gain importance, as a slave distributor, also there was a need for slaves in the island. Since both parties needed to communicate, a pidgin was formed. The substrate languages were from the Bantu and Kwa groups. By the arrival of several settlers from Portugal, there was a need for women and the Portuguese early started to have affairs with African women that became free. This was not only a cultural matter, however the Portuguese kings for the sake of settlement also supported it. But the continuous flux of slave, shaped the Portuguese pidgin to become a stable, systematic and structured native language. Later because of the Dutch and French pressure to gain the island, many Portuguese settlers left. It is not much to remember that children of Portuguese with black women were, eventually, not considered as African or slaves, some were considered as full right Portuguese citizens.

Although the São Tomean Creole had (and still has) a restricted contact with Portuguese (seen as a prestigious language), it did conserve a larger number of the substrate languages elements, more that the Creoles of Cape Verde, that preserve fewer traces. Roughly 93% of São Tomean Creole lexicon is from Portuguese and 7% of African origin. The São tomean Creole is most known as Forro (language of the freed slaves or Crioulo Santomense) forro is a declaration of freedom of a specific slave, not to confuse Crioulo Santomense with Santomense (a variety and dialect of Portuguese in São Tomé and Príncipe). Although 95% of São Tomeans speaks Portuguese; the islands' Lingua Franca is Forro (spoken by 85%), as it is the vehicle of communication that the different languages (Portuguese, Forro, Linguyê and Angolar) most understand. Even though it hasn’t the prestige of Portuguese language in the islands, it is evident that the contact with the large number (and continuous) of Portuguese speakers did not destroyed Forro, many relearn Forro when they become adults. The São Tomean rich culture also preserve an unique mixture of Portuguese and African cultures.

Examples of Forro

note: There is no writing system for Forro, but some entusiastics have already proposed one. In the article, we will use it as also from the Portuguese form for a better understanding of the origin of the words, Portuguese spelling and also it is a possible writing system (when diverging).

Hello: Seja lovadu! (proposed: sejalovadu); From Port. seja louvado (the sound is the same as Port. Estremenho and Carioca dialects)

Good Morning: Bom dja ô (proposed: Bondja o); From Port. Bom dia

Good Afternoon: Bos tadji ô (proposed: Boxtadji o); From Port. Boas tardes or Boa tarde

Good Evening: Boj notxi ô (proposed: Bojnotxi o); From Port. Boas noites or Boa noite

What's your name: Que nomi bo e? (proposed: Ke nomi bo e?); From Port. Que nome você tem?

My name's Pedro: Nomi mu sa Pedro; Possibly from Port. Nome meu é Pedro (somewhat incorrect Portuguese; only used in poetry).

Not everything is from Portuguese,

I live in Neves (São Tomean City): Nga-ta Tlaxa.

external link: Declaraçón Universal di Dirêtu di Hómé Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Forro

Lunguyê

Lunguyê is from Portuguese and means Language of the Island (Port. Língua da Ilha), it is sometimes called as Principense. Lunguyê presents many similarities with Forro, the substrate language are the same (Bantu and Kwa). Lunguyê Creole can be seen as a dialect of Forro. This specific Creole is only spoken in Principe Island in São Tomé and Príncipe.

Portuguese-Indian Creoles

Burgher

Crioulo de Diu

The Crioulo de Diu of Diu, Daman and Diu, India is near extinction because of Gujarati, largely spoken, and because schools obliges the study of this language and does not teach Portuguese or its Creole. Only uninstructed elderly speaks it at home. Meanwhile, younger people restarted to use Portuguese words in their vocabulary. The death of Crioulo de Diu is eminent; in the past there was a florescent community of Portuguese-Indians that spoke it.

Crioulo de Vaipim

Língua da Casa

Daman and Korlai are now the only vivid Portuguese Creoles of India. The Creole of Daman is known as Língua da Casa (Eng., Home Language), spoken at home by a population of 2,000 or more Christians. The Creole of Daman is a descendent of the Portuguese-Indian Norteiro Creole of the Coast from Chaul, Bassaim, Bombay, Daman and Diu. Before the Indian annexation of the territory, the Creole of Daman had become more similar to standard Portuguese. The Associação Luso Indiana Damaense (Eng. Portuguese-Indian Association of Daman), to which most Catholics of Daman are members, says that there are 10-12 thousand Portuguese speakers (all Christians) in the territory of 110,000 residents. A Sunday mess is spoken in Portuguese. The Portuguese heritage in Daman is more popular and vivid than in Goa what permitted the maintenance of its Creole. Both the substrate (Gujarati) and superstrate (Portuguese) languages are still found in the territory.

Kristi

In an isolated Indian village known as Korlai in the District of Kplaba (Bombay), the Portuguese-based Creole known as Kristi is the only language of the 1,000 Christians inhabitants. Few is known about Kristi, only that is similar to Papiá Kristang of Malacca (Malaysia). The village is near the Chaul ruins, a 16th century Portuguese colonial city that was destroyed by the Marathas. The city was abondoned, left in ruins. In the middle of the forest one can see palaces, towers, convents among other ruins. Kristi was recognized because it was very different from the neighbouring languages.

Examples of Kristi

Thanks a lot: Muit'obrigad! From Port. Muito Obrigado

Me: io; From Port. eu

You (singular): vo; From Port. Você

You (plural): uzo; Port. Vocês, vós

First, Second: Primer, Sigun; From Port. Primeiro, Segundo

Everyone eat and drink a lot: tud gent cumen beben tem fart; From Port. toda a gente come e bebe com fartura

Song of Korlai:

Maldita Maria Madulena,

Maldita firmosa,

Ai, contra ma ja foi a Madulena,

Vastida de mata!

Portuguese translation:

Maldita Maria Madalena,

Maldita Formosa,

Ai, contra minha vontade foi a Madalena,

Vestida de matar!

English translation:

Cursed Maria Madalena,

Cursed Beautiful one,

Oh, against my will it was Madalena,

Dressed to Kill!

Portuguese-Malay

Papiá Kristang

Following the take-over of Malacca (Malaysia) in 1511, Portuguese were encouraged to marry local women. A Portuguese-based Creole was shaped and is still spoken today by more than 1,000 Christians. It is known as Papiá Kristang (Port. Papia Cristã, Eng. Christian Language) in a community known, by themselves, as Gente Kristang (Port. Gente Cristã, Eng. Christian People). Cristão is the Portuguese for Christian. Although written differently, in Portuguese, the sounds for Kristang and Cristão are exactly the same. Kristang reflects how an English speaker would write Portuguese language throw sounds. About 80 % of the older residents of the Portuguese settlement in Malacca regularly speak Kristang. There are also some speakers in today’s Singapore and Kuala Lumpur because of emigration. Kristang is very close to Malay in its grammatical construction, but its vocabulary is for 95% derived from Portuguese.

Even though Portugal lost Malacca and almost all contact in 1641, the Gente Kristang maintained its traditions, religion and language almost unharmed, which is a curiosity and unique in the world; the cultural and linguistic link towards today’s Portugal (especially, Minho region), is astonishing. Because of some aspects of the language and culture, the Malay Government and people still refer to the Portuguese-Malay as «Portuguese» and they are not treated as locals, even if they are a mixture between Portuguese and Malays for centuries. Needless to say that their language is not taught at school. Portuguese and Brazilian people, traveling in Asia, that descovered Kristang find it remarcable, exciting and unexpected.

Examples of Kristang

Thank You: Mutu Merseh (Port. Muito Obrigado)

How Are You?, Teng Bong? (From Port. Estás bom?)

Good Morning, Bong Pamiang (From Port. Boa Manhã)

Good Afternoon: Bong Midia (From Port. Bom Meio-dia)

Good Evening: Bong Atadi (From Port. Boa Tarde)

Good Night: Bong Anuti (From Port. Boa Noite)

Me: yo (From Port. eu)

You (singular): bos (From Port. vós)

You (plural): bolotudu (From Port. vós todos, vocês todos)

Mother: mai (From Port. mãe)

Father: pai (From Port. pai)

Wife: muleh (From Port. mulher)

Husband: maridu (From Port. marido)

Old Women: bela (From Port. velha)

Old Man: belu (From Port. velho)

Little one: Quenino or Kenino (From Port. Pequenino)

Fat: godru (From Port. gordo)

Beautiful: Bonitu (From Port. bonito)

Party: festa (From Port. festa)

one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, teen: ungua, dos, tres, kuatu, singku, sez, seti, oitu, novi, des (From Port. um, dois, três, quatro, cinco, seis, sete, oito, nove, dez)

Poem of Malacca:

Keng teng fortuna ficah na Malaka,

Nang kereh partih bai otru tera.

Pra ki tudu jenti teng amizadi,

Kontu partih logo ficah saudadi.

Ó Malaka, tera di San Francisku,

Nten otru tera ki yo kereh.

Ó Malaka undi teng sempri fresku,

Yo kereh ficah atih moreh.

Portuguese translation:

Quem tem fortuna fica em Malaca,

Não quer partir para outra terra.

Por aqui toda a gente tem amizade,

Quando partir logo fica a saudade.

Ó Malaca, terra de São Francisco,

Não há outra terra que eu quero.

Ó Malaca, onde tem sempre ar fresco,

Eu quero ficar até morrer.

English translation:

Who has wealth stays in Malacca,

Doesn't want to go to another land.

In here everyone has friendship,

When one leaves, stays saudade¹.

Oh Malacca, land of San Francisco,

There is no other land that I want.

Oh Malacca, where there's allways fresh air,

I want to stay where until I die.

(1) Saudade, is the Portuguese sentiment of Miss (Missing in pain and remembering). Feeling miss in translated into Portuguese as Sentir Falta.

external links:

Papia, Relijang e Tradisang, The Portuguese Eurasians in Malaysia

Malacca Portuguese Eurasian Association

Malacca Portuguese Settlement

Papia kristang, the language

Portuguese-Chinese Creoles

Patuá

Portuguese-American Creoles

Papiamento

Saramacano

Descendants of fugitive slaves in former Dutch Guyana (today’s Suriname) speak Saramacano. Unlike other Creoles of running slaves that are based on a blend of English, Dutch and Portuguese words, Saramacano had no English base or structure. The Creole contains large numbers of Portuguese origin words; its structure is very similar to other Portuguese Creoles, even to Portuguese-Indian ones. Saramacano was firstly classified has English-based, because people that studied the Suriname's Creoles considered they were all based on the same. But in the 19th century, English starts to be a big influence in Saramacano; in the meantime, the structure was maintained has a Portuguese-based Creole. Most Portuguese origin elements are verbs, adverbs, pronouns and every day used objects.

25,000 individuals of the Saramacano tribe and 2,000 of the Matawi tribe speak Saramacano. It is not known, why Saramacano is Portuguese-based. Some say that they already came from Western Africa with a Portuguese pidgin or their lords were Portuguese.

Extinct Portuguese Creoles

Bengali Creoles

Until 1811, Christians even in Calcutta used Portuguese. A Portuguese Creole was still spoken in early 20th century. The Creoles of Bengal were found in places such as Balasore, Pipli, Chandernagore, Chittagong, Midnapore and Hugli.

Coromandel Creoles

The Creoles of the Coast of Coromandel, India (such as of Meliapor, Madrasta, Tuticorin, Cuddalore, Karikal, Pondicheri, Tranquebar, Manapar, Negapatam) were already extinct in the 19th century, the Portuguese-Indian (known locally as Topasses) shifts to English when the British conquered their lands.

Flores Creole

In early 16th century, Portuguese traders and missionaries established in the Flores island, Indonesia after the dutch attacks in Indonesia, they settled in Larantuca and Sikka. The Portuguese influence in Sikka is still vast in the language, religion and culture.

Batavia Creole

The Mardijkers of Batavia (Today’s Jakarta, Indonesia) are descendant of old slaves from Malacca and India, converted to Protestantism, they spoke a Portuguese Creole, also there was a local Portuguese community. Portuguese was the First language until 1750, in spite of Dutch efforts against it. It was spoken until the 19th century.

Malabar Creoles

Most of the Creoles of the coast of Malabar, India (Cananor, Tellicherry, Mahé, Cochin, Vaipim and Quilom) have become extinct in the 19th century. The Creole of the island of Vaipim (near Cochin) prevailed till these days, spoken by some families of the Christian community. In Cananor and Tellicherry, until the 1980s, some elder still spoke some Creole.

Norteiro

Most of the Norteiro Creoles (language of Christian Indo-Portuguese in Northern India) have died, such as of Baçain, Salsete, Thana, Chevai, Mahim, Tecelaria, Dadar, Parel, Cavel, Bandora-Badra, Govai, Morol, Andheri, Versova, Malvan, Manori, Mazagão and Chaul. No more than the Creoles of Daman (known as Língua da Casa), Korlai (known as Kristi) and Diu are still lively. But the Creole of Diu is in danger of extinction. The two surviving suffered drastic changes; Standard Portuguese re-influenced the Creole of Daman in the mid-20th century. And Kristi became isolated from Portuguese language and culture in 1739.

Papiá of Tugu

In Tugu, village north of Jakarta, descendants of Portuguese maintained its Creole, known as Papiá (similar to Papiá Kristang), as mother-tongue until the1940s, the last speaker died in 1978.

Portugis

In Ambom and Ternate, in Moluccas Islands (Indonesia), Portuguese mixed with locals and created a community of Christians that spoke Portugis. They spoke it until the middle of the 20th century. When the Dutch conquered the islands, many Portuguese were imprisoned and exported as slaves to Batavia (today’s Jakarta), the rest of Indonesia and to South Africa. Because the population still continue to spoke Portugis, the Dutch also started to speak it for communication with locals.

Português de Bidau

In East Timor a variety of Portuguese-based Creole was spoken in Bidau, known as Português de Bidau. Possibly it became extinct in the 1960s. The Creole was never widespread in the colony. Soldiers and officials from Lifau, and Portuguese settlers and Mestiços of Flores, Indonesia introduced it.

Portuguese-influenced indigenous languages

Portuguese influenced several languages, such as Japanese, Swahili or Malay. Some languages are deeply influenced by the Portuguese language, but are not classified as Creoles.

Tetum the co-official language of East Timor (with Portuguese, sometimes by some confused to be a Portuguese Creole is, in fact, only heavily influenced by it.

External links