Caste

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Template:IndicText Caste systems are an ancient system of social stratification or hierarchy that have existed throughout history and throughout the world, but the most well-known caste system today is the Indian Varna system.

The word caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning "pure", while the original Hindu word varna means "color".

Overview

Anthropologists use the term more generally to refer to a social group that is endogamous and occupationally specialized; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility. Broadly understood, South Africa during the era of apartheid, the practice of slavery in the antebellum South of the United States through the Civil Rights movement, colonial Latin America under Spanish and Portuguese rule (see Casta), and India prior to 1947 were all class and caste-based societies.

Hindu society was (and perhaps still is) classified along professional lines. In a modern context, they might be viewed as Guilds or Labor-Unions. There is no word equivalent to 'caste' in any Indian language (the word is Portuguese in origin) and the 'caste system' as known today is a more recent invention.

The 'caste system' as interpreted today, is really a representation of the way Portuguese society viewed a social structure that they could not comprehend. It would be appropriate to state that Portuguese at this time, practised genocide on some scale in India; there is also indeed a history of Inquistion that took place in Portuguese-controlled parts of India.

'Caste' or 'caste-system' today is, in a sense, a mythical creature. It is a Eurocentric view, of traditional societies. As such it is slowly losing relevance in a Indian context.

Origins of the Caste System

The Indian religious system (Hinduism) is attributed to have created the caste system. This theory is analyzed below.

Varna

In Sanskrit, Varņa means color, appearance, physical form or characteristic. One of the hymns of the Rig Veda, one of the holiest Hindu scripturs, gives the following enumeration in the famous Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90):

मुखं किमस्य कौ बाहू का ऊरू पादा उच्येते ||

ब्राह्मणो अस्य मुखमासीद बाहू राजन्यः कर्तः |

ऊरूतदस्य यद वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ||

Its rough translation is : "What became of his (the Cosmic Spirit's) face or mouth? What became of his two arms? What became of His two thighs? What were (the products of) the two feet called? From His face (or the mouth) came the brahmanas. From His two arms came the rajanya (the kshatriyas). From His two thighs came the vaishyas. From His two feet came the shudras."

This is the only hymn in the Rig Veda, which belongs to that book (Xth) which many historians claim to be a little later addition to the existing nine books, that enumerates the four Varnas for the first and the last time (without defining anything). The other three Vedas and Upanishads have extremely rare mention of the Varnas. In later Hinduism, people interpreted this hymn such that the society is to be divided into four Varnas or castes, which are:

Brahmana: The priests and the teachers
Kshatriya (or Rajanya): Administrators and Military men
Vaishya (or Arya): Traders, merchants, businessmen, farmers and herdsmen
Shudra: Servants

In any discussion of the 'caste-system', ManuSmriti is often quoted. However, the text Manu Smriti does not form a part of Hindu Scriptures. So any quotation from ManuSmriti is suspect especially as regards its relevance. To a large extent, ManuSmriti is used by politicians and sociologists to denigrate those of the Hindu faith. In fact, it was popularized by the British colonialists as the most authoritative law book of the Hindus and imposed upon them. See this article.

However, in even later Hinduism, as claimed by the Manu Smriti, there came to exist another class of people who were not even given a position in any of the four Varnas, and consequently, became associated with the meanest of the jobs. The upper castes who were supposed to maintain rutual and corporal purity, came to regard them as untouchables. Hence there also came about a fifth varna, which some say arose out of "nowhere", of people nowcalled the Dalits (the oppressed), or Harijans.

It is very clear that in the early Vedic times, the Varna system (if at all it existed) meant classes with free mobility of jobs and intermarriage. One hymn of the Rig Veda states:

कारुरहं ततो भिषगुपलप्रक्षिणी नना | (RV 9.112.3)

"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......"

While intermarriage between Brahmana bridegrooms and Kshatriya princesses was extremely common (even sanctioned by the later Manu Smriti), in many instances, marriages between Kshatriya princes and Brahmana brides was also observed (severely condemned by Manu Smriti). One of such instances is marriage of Dushyanata, a Kshatriya prince, with Shakuntala, a daughter of the sage Vishvamitra and adopted daughter of sage Kanva.

In later times, with the elaboration of ritualism, the caste sytem became absolutely hereditary (the historians disagree as to when) and the Shudras were not even allowed to hear the sacred word of the Vedas.

"If the shudra intentionally listens for committing to memory the veda, then his ears should be filled with (molten) lead and lac; if he utters the veda, then his tongue should be cut off; if he has mastered the veda his body should be cut to pieces." (Manu Smriti XII. 4)

A stark contrast to this is a mantra from the White Yajur Veda itself:

यथेमां वाचं कल्याणीमावदानि जनेभ्यः ।

ब्रह्मराजन्याभ्याँ शूद्राय चार्याय च स्वाय चारणाय ।

प्रियो देवानां दक्षिणायै दातुरिह भूयासमयं मे कामः समृध्यतामुप मादो नमतु ।। (White Yajur Veda 26.2)

"I do hereby address this salutary (Vedic) speech for the benefit of humanity – for the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Shudras, the Vaishas, the kinsfolk and the men of lowest position in society. May I be dear to the learned in this world."

Twice Born

The first three castes are seen as 'twice born', and are allowed to study the vedas. Existence of Castes is validated through the idea of rebirth according to a person's karma, the sum of an individual's deeds in this life and in past lives. After death, a person's life is judged by divine forces, and rebirth is assigned in a high or a low place, depending upon what is deserved.

Jati

Sub-castes within a Varna are called Jati
Each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati.
People are born into their Jati and it cannot be changed.
Each jati is part of a locally based system of interdependence with other groups, involving occupational specialization, and is linked in complex ways with networks that stretch across regions and throughout the nation.

Indian caste system

Modern perceptions of caste

Whilst the ancient Vedas are said to talk about only four varnas or castes, contemporary India has numerous sub-castes (jatis) within each Varna, officially documented (primarily to determine those deserving reservation, an affirmative action process similar to and pre-dating the US system) through the census. Caste-based politics have strong roots in many Indian states, as most politicians have an inability or unwillingness to discuss economic and social issues in any rational manner. At most times, conversions to other religions like Christianity, or Islam, does not result in end of jati - as jati are primarily defined by the profession followed by the person. Also, many feel that both faiths Christianity, or Islam, promise non-educated convertees complete, immediate, economic, equality with the educated - something impossible in most modern societies, industrial or argicultural.

The embracement of the lower castes into the mainstream of society was brought about by Mahatma Gandhi who called them Harijans ("people of God"). His naming of lower castes as Harijans ("people of God") simply became a euphemism (another name) by which the upper castes call the lower castes.

Currently, India has tough laws against untouchability on the basis of caste. The Indian Constitution has strict laws against discrimination - including caste discrimination. Matrimony between members of different castes are not rare, but is not very frequent either. This is only to be expected. In other parts of the world, matrimonial alliances are rare between Catholics and Protestants (or between Shia and Sunni Muslims). There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the erstwhile outcastes, by the provision of education, reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, and a 12.5% quota in government jobs with faster promotions. These affirmative actions have often been challenged in courts, and through mass protests. Anti-reservation activists allege that the process, which they suspect is fuelled by political gains, artificially fosters the sub-divisions. A few allege that in the process of categorizing people "who need reservation", sub-caste based jati identities becomes very important and is firmly entrenched in the Indian psyche. Many also allege that the progress of the meritorious is cramped by the reservation system, which has not been set any deadline by the Constitution of India. Pro-reservation activists allege that the system helps in upliftment of the lower castes and needs to be in place until all sections achieve an equal status in the Indian society. However, what started as a way of upliftment of a certain section of the society, has turned into a full fledged political issue - useful only for the politicians at elections. Certain states in India have a reservations of over 70%.

Proponents of Affirmative Action or Reservations usually point to the centuries old system of social and economic reservation that upper castes of Hindus have been enjoying. Opponents of Affirmative Action tend to say that one needs to look to the future, not the past, if society is to prosper. It is not difficult to see that Affirmative Action may be impossible beyond a certain point - society may not generate sufficient wealth to maintain such a social mechanism.

Nepalese caste system

The caste system in Nepal can be traced back to the introduction of Muluki Ain (1854) by Jung Bahadur Rana after his return from his European tour. The Muluki Ain (1854) was a written version of social code that had been in practice for several centuries in Nepal. Its caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure castes. These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence. (Harka Gurung 2005:3,Occational Papers in Sociology and Anthropology)

· Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy chord) · Matwali v Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) v Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers) · Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) · Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes)

The above mention categories implies that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy chord) remains in the highest hierarchy in Hindu caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers touchable caste and lastly untouchable.

Muluki Ain imposes the caste system in Nepal in order to incorporate people of different origin to bring under one umbrella of caste system. The first categories of Thagadhari which include Parbate Brahmin and Chettri are in the higher categories of hierarchy where as Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmin as per Muluki Ain do not fall under these categories.

Matwali group, salvable and enslavable falls under second categories, which include the people of ethnic origin and Brahmins of terai and Newari Brahmins. It also includes those people in the non-enslavable group such as Magar, Gurung, Rai, and Limbu etc and enslavable are Tamang, Chepang, Thami etc.

Untouchable are the categories of varnas system in ancient Manu's Code but some people such as Musalman and foreigners as well falls under these categories. Untouchables are divided into Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) and Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes). In present day context caste system falls under Hindu varna system i.e, Brahmin, Khatria Vaisias and Sudra respectively instead of following Muluki Ain's codification, as ethnic group do not follow the caste system because they have their own culture, tradition ,religion and values system which do not fall under caste system.

Sri Lankan caste system

The caste system appears to have been introduced to Sri Lanka by Aryan-language-speakers from North India. There is evidence of the main vedic castes in the early Anuradhapura era. The introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE somewhat blunted the edge of the system somewhat. However, there is a reference to King Dutugemunu Abhaya's son, Saliya choosing to lose caste by marrying Asokamala, a Chandala (outcaste) woman, in the 2nd century BCE.

The later caste system seems to have evolved as much through waves of ethnic migration as by occupation. Among the present-day Sinhalese the Vedic categories no longer exist, while among the Sri Lanka Tamils, the only Vedic category to persist is that of Brahmins; these ethnic groups share many categories.

The major Sinhalese castes (Jathi) are: Govigama or Goyi ('farmers'), Navandhaenna or Ridhi (silversmiths), Karava (fishermen), Dhurave (toddy tappers), Salagama or Haali (cinnamon peelers), Wahumpura or Hakuru (Jaggery-makers), Bathgama or Padhu (bearers), Berava (Tom-tom beaters), Panna (grass-cutters), Kumbal (potters), Radha (Washers or Dhobies), Demelagaththaro (Tamil tribes) and Hinna (washers to the Salagamas). There also 'Out' castes, the Tamil-speaking, wandering 'Gypsies' - Rodi and Ahikuntaka. The aboriginal Veddas were considered to be outside the caste system: many aristocratic families claim descent from these tribes; however, the 'Gypsy' castes may be offshoots of aboriginal hunters employed by the ancient kings.

Among the Tamils, many of these castes are duplicated: Vellala (equivalent to Govigama), Karaiyar (Karava) and Dhuraiyar (Dhurave). There is also a caste called Kovi, the members of which claim to be Sinhalese Govigama isolated in Tamil areas after the Chola conquest of the North.

The Indian Tamils who were brought over by the British as indentured labour were mainly from the lower Indian castes; the South Indian categories came over with them.

It appears that caste was more important than ethnicity until comparatively recently. In pre-British times, the Govigama were classed as Vellala by the colonial authorities. Eurasians and South Indian Chetties were absorbed into the Govigamas. Cross-ethnic marriage was fairly common. Several leading 'aristocratic' Sinhalese families are descended from Tamils or Keralites. Many Karavas speak Tamil at home and have relatives among the 'Tamil' Karaiyars.

Religious practice tends to reinforce the caste system. In the feudal era, people of low castes were not allowed into the shrines of the major gods or into the Buddhist clergy. The priests of the gods (kapuralas) had to be Govigama among the Sinhalese, Brahmins among the Tamils. However, the 'Devil Dancers' (exorcists, healers and sorcerers) were drawn from the tom-tom beating caste.

In the 19th century the Amarapura and Ramanna sects were formed to allow non-Govigama priests to be ordained, in opposition to the casteist Siam sect. In the late 1960s, there were a series of 'Temple Struggles' in the northern Jaffna district, during which members of lower castes forced their way into Hindu temples, establishing their right of entry.

Balinese caste system

Japanese caste system

Castes in ancient Israel

Something akin to the caste system was also found in Judaism (during the Temple period), which divided its society into the inherited Cohanim priesthood, who, due to their Temple duties, had access to most parts of the Temple, Levites, whose auxiliary duties allowed them somewhat less access than the Cohanim, and the rest of the Israelites, whose involvement in the Temple was lesser than the Levites. This "caste system" had mostly ritualistic ramifications, and the social side-effects were very limited and far lesser than those found in the Hindu caste system, which entailed almost complete social separation and a clear social hierarchy. Intermarriage was completely allowed within the Israelite people, with rare exception (such as the prohibition against a Cohen marrying a divorcee), and the Israelites were prohibited only from marrying outside their own people. This Israelite "caste system" continued along lines of Patrilineal descent. Converts to the Israelite people were considered full Israelites, and Mosaic law demanded that they be treated kindly and with special sensitivity. In contemporary Judaism, despite the absence of the Temple, certain ritual laws continue to apply to Cohanim, and both they and the Levites are honored with deferential formalities in some rituals.

Castes in Rwanda and Burundi

The system is also found in Africa, in Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Congo; here it is known as ubuhake. The Tutsi, who comprise about 15% of the population of these areas, were the ruling, Cattle-owning caste - corresponding to the "Kshatriyas" in the Vedic system. Below them were the Hutu, the farmers - corresponding with the Vedic Sudras; about 80% of the population. Fewer than 3% of the population are Twa or Pygmies.

During the German suzerainty over Rwanda and Burundi, the authorities reinforced the system by employing Tutsis in hegemonic roles. The Belgian colonialists who succeeded them after World War I continued this policy, instituting 'ethnic' identity cards. They also incorporates subsidiary populations, such as the Hima and the Baganwa, into the Tutsi.

After independence, tensions intensified. In 1972, Tutsis were responsible for a wholesale massacre of Hutus. In the 1990s, Hutus responded with a counter-massacre. Proponents of the caste-system feel this to be a case of caste-warfare, though this seems to be a example of the other sort: that of a person with a hammer, who sees the need for a nail on every wall.

References

Bryce Ryan, Caste in Modern Ceylon, Rutgers University Press, 1953.

External links

Scheduled Castes (DALITS) in Pakistan

New Internationalist, July 2005, "Combatting Caste"
The Caste System in India
Jati system in India
Caste & the Tamil Nation - Brahmins, Non Brahmins & Dalits
Koenraad Elst's articles on Caste: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste,
The Caste System: Introduction, Myths and Reality