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Heathenry (new religious movement)

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Reconstructions of the traditions of Germanic paganism began with 19th century Romanticism. From the 1960s, various Neopagan movements based on pre-Christian Germanic faiths have emerged. Heathen (Old Norse heiðinn), the Germanic translation of Latin paganus, is preferred by some adherents as a self-description. In the USA, Ásatrú ("Æsir faith") and Odinism are widely used as a generic term for Germanic paganism, while in Britain, Heathenry, and in Scandinavia Forn Sed ("Old custom", Anglo-Saxon fyrnsidu) is current, while others make a sharp distinction between these terms.

Terminology

Ásatrú

Ásatrú is an Old Norse compound derived from Ása, the genitive of Áss, which refers to the Aesir, (one of the two families of gods in Norse mythology, the other being the Vanir), and Trú, literally "troth" or "faith". Thus, Ásatrú is the "Æsir's faith." The term is the Old Norse/Icelandic translation of Asetro, a neologism coined in the context of 19th century romantic nationalism, first used by Edvard Grieg in his 1870 opera Olaf Trygvason. The Icelandic form of the word is first recorded in 1945 in Heiðinn siður á Íslandi ("Heathen traditions in Iceland") by Ólafur Briem. Ásatrúar, sometimes used as a plural in English, is properly the genitive of Ásatrú.

Use of Ásatrú for Germanic paganism preceding 19th century revivalist movements is therefore an anachronism. Likewise, use of Ásatrú as a synonym of Germanic Neopaganism, while widespread in the USA, can be misleading. Organizations self-describing as Ásatrú cover a wide spectrum, including left-wing or alternative New Age, tribalist or reconstructionist, folkish, or neonazi (e.g. Artgemeinschaft) movements. In the strict sense, the term refers to reconstructed medieval Norse or Icelandic paganism and in particular to the Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið.

Heathen

Heathen (Old English hæðen, Old Norse heiðinn) was coined as a translation of Latin paganus, in the Christian sense of "non-Abrahamic faith". Historically, the term was influenced by Gothic *haiþi, appearing as haiþno in Ulfilas' bible as translating gunē Hellēnis, "Greek (i.e. gentile) woman" of Mark 7:26, probably with an original meaning "dwelling on the heath", but it was also suggested that it was chosen because of its similarity to Greek ethne "gentile" or even that it is not related to "heath" at all, but rather a loan from Armenian hethanos, itself loaned from Greek ethnos. Some Germanic Neopagans narrow the sense of the word to Germanic paganism in particular, and prefer it over pagan as a self-designation.

Odinism

Coined by Orestes Brownson in 1848, in A revival of Odinism, or the old Scandinavian heathenism, and re-introduced in the late 1930s by Alexander Rud Mills, and in the 1960s to early 1970s with Else Christensen's Odinist Fellowship in America, and by the Odinic Rite in England, the term focuses on worship of Odin in particular, and in the narrow sense refers to the Odinic Rite society, but in a wider sense it is also used synonymously with Ásatrú or Heathen.

Forn Siðr

Old Norse Forn Siðr, Anglo-Saxon Fyrnsidu and its modern Scandinavian analogues Forn Sed, all meaning "Old Custom", is used as a term for pre-Christian Germanic culture in general, and for Germanic neopaganism in particular, mostly by groups in Scandinavia. Old Norse forn "old" is cognate to Sanskrit purana, English far. Old Norse siðr "custom" (not to be confused with sīðr "late"), Anglo-Saxon sidu, seodu "custom", cognate to Greek ethos, in the sense of "traditional law, way of life, proper behaviour". In meaning, the term corresponds exactly to Sanskrit sanātana dharma, the native term for Hinduism. In contradistinction to Ásatrú, inn forni siðr is actually attested in Old Norse, contrasting with inn nýi siðr "the new custom", and similarly Heiðinn siðr, contrasting with Kristinn siðr, and í fornum sið "in old (heathen) times" [1].

Theodism

Theodism, or Þéodisc Geléafa seeks to reconstruct the beliefs and practices of the Anglo-Saxon tribes which settled in England. þéodisc is the adjective of þéod "people, tribe", cognate to deutsch.

History

The first modern attempt at revival of ancient Germanic religion took place in the 19th Century during the late Romantic Period amidst a general resurgence of interest in traditional Germanic culture, in particular in connection with romantic nationalism in Scandinavia and the related Viking revival in Victorian era Britain. The last traditional pagan sacrifices in Scandinavia, at Trollkyrka, appear to date to about this time.

Organized Germanic pagan or occult groups such as the Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft emerged in Germany in the early 20th century. Several early members of the Nazi Party were part of the Thule Society, a study group for German antiquity. The connections of this movement to historical Germanic paganism are tenuous at best, with its emphasis lying on the esoteric as taught by the likes of Julius Evola, Guido von List or Karl Maria Willigut. While occult elements played an important role in the formative phase of Nazism, and of the SS in particular (Nazi use of runes has its origin in these early times), after his rise to power, Adolf Hitler discouraged such pursuits, to the disappointment of Nazi mysticists like Rudolf Hess and Alfred Rosenberg, and Neopagan societies were even exposed to some amount of persecution, with at least one member of List's Armanenschaft killed in a concentration camp, although Heinrich Himmler remained actively interested in Ariosophy and related concepts throughout the war, incorporating the Ahnenerbe into the SS in 1940.

A second revival began in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Ásatrú was recognized as an official religion by the Icelandic government in 1973, largely due to the efforts of Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson.

At about the same time, Else Christensen began publishing "The Odinist" newsletter in Canada. In the United States, Steve McNallen, a former U.S. Army officer, began publishing a newsletter titled "The Runestone". He also formed an organization called the Asatru Free Assembly, later renamed the Ásatrú Folk Assembly (AFA) [2], which held annual "Althing" meetings. These early societies went through a series of reformations and splits in 1987/88, resulting in the Ásatrú Alliance [3], an offshoot of the AFA headed by Valgard Murray, publisher of the "Vor Tru" newsletter and the Ring of Troth [4]. In the United States, the most prevalent form of Heathen organization is in small groups called Kindreds, sometimes also known as a Hearths, Garths or Steads.

The Angelseaxisce Ealdriht was a confederation promoting Theodish or specifically Anglo-Saxon Heathenry from 1996 to 2004. Since the Anglo-Saxon society was based on sacral kingship, American Theodist Neopagans saw it necessary to elect an Aetheling; this position, king of Winland Rice has been occupied by one Garman since 1995 [5]. Theodism places emphasis on oaths and allegiance between members.

The Odinic Rite was established in England in 1972, and in the 1990s expanded to include chapters in Germany (1995) [6], Australia (1995) [7] and North America (1997) [8].

In Germany, Nazism was replaced with Neo-Nazi currents after World War II, with the Artgemeinschaft operating from 1951. A non-political revival began in the wake of the New Age movement, with the Heidnische Gemeinschaft (HG) founded by Géza von Neményi in 1985. Von Neményi in 1991 re-activated the Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft (GGG) and split off the HG. The movement further diversified during the 1990s, with Nornirs Ætt splitting off the universalist Rabenclan in 1997, and the Eldaring, inspired by the US Ring of Troth, founded in 2000. Hostility between factions remains pronounced in Germany, with even Nornirs Ætt and Rabenclan, two expressedly anti-racist organizations, discontinuing their collaboration in 2005.

In the 1990s and 2000s, a variety of Scandinavian associations and networks have formed. Swedish Sveriges Asatrosamfund (since 1994), Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost in Norway (1996) and Foreningen Forn Sed (1999), recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious society, allowing them to perform "legally binding civil ceremonies" (i. e. marriages), Danish Forn Siðr (1999) and Swedish Nätverket Gimle (2001), an informal community for individual heathens, primarily living in Sweden with no connection to any formal organisation, and Nätverket Forn Sed (2004), a network consisting of local groups (blotlag) from all over the country. It was recently founded by members from other Forn Sed societies. The network is against racism, sexism and homophobia.

Distribution of adherents

Today, Germanic Neopaganism is practiced primarily in Scandinavia, Germany, Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand. Small communities are also found in many other countries, mostly in Western Europe (Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal) and Russia.

The number of adherents worldwide is unknown, partly because of the lack of a clear definition separating Asatru from related currents. Those organised in some sort of organization number perhaps several hundred in North America, about 700 in Iceland, and a few hundred in both Scandinavia and Germany, with smaller groups scattered world wide, adding to a total of a few thousands.

As of 2001, the University of New York estimated that some 140,000 people in the USA self-identify as "Pagan" [9] (excluding Wiccan (134,000), New Age (68,000), Druid (33,000), Spiritualist (116,000) and aboriginal religions (4,000)). The total number of Neopagans worldwide is estimated at roughly one million [10] [11], of which about a third each are located in the UK, the USA, and over the rest of the world.

Celtic Neopaganism is more widespread than Germanic traditions in the UK, so that including individuals not organized in societies, the worldwide number of people identifying in some way with Asatru or Germanic Neopaganism may range at roughly a few hundred thousands.

Factions

Besides the Norse/Germanic mythology at its core, Heathenry has regional varieties of emphasis, often from the subjective interpretations of influential local practitioners. Thus, in Germany and the USA, some movements have racial, white supremacy or Neo-Nazi ideologies, while in Iceland, on the other hand, Ásatrú has left wing associations.

Some Neopagan organizations in Germany in particular have a relationship to Ariosophy, Occultism and Neo-Nazi ideology, such as the Armanen-Orden in the tradition of Karl Maria Willigut. Other organizations, like the re-founded Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft or Odinic Rite are not clear in their associations, while the Rabenclan has a reputation of anti-Nazi criticism in German Neopaganism. In the USA, notably Else Christensen's Odinist Fellowship was influenced by National Socialism, while other organizations emphatically reject any such leanings. The official policy of the more liberal Troth takes no stance towards ethnicity or race, although their members are allowed to believe anything they choose.

A perhaps overly-simplified break down of the factions in North American Asatru [12] could be identified as thus: Universalist, Tribalist and Folkish Asatru. Universalist Asatruar practice a cultural and moral relativism to the point of syncretism, while Folkish Asatruar insist on the necessity of Northern European heritage for the adherents of Asatru. Tribalist Asatruar take the middle approach between these two perspectives, and emphasizes the cultural identity and history of (reconstructed) Germanic traditions without an emphasis on heritage or ethnicity.

Ásatrú also has connections with the black metal subculture, notably the infamous Varg Vikernes who was responsible for the burning of several Christian churches in the 1980s and 1990s in Norway, in an attempt to restore Norway to its pagan roots.

Tenets

Germanic Neopagan organizations generally favor democratic and republican forms of church government, as inspired by the parliamentary Things of the Viking era and subsequent parliamentary systems of Britain and the Scandinavian countries. They promote individual rights and freedom of speech reminiscent of the free jarls of Norse saga.

Solitary practice, or practice in small circles of friends or family is common. Neopagan societies have been formed since the 1970s, but most take the role of a loose federation and do not require committed membership comparable to a church. Consequently, there is no central authority, and associations remain in a state of fluidity as factions form and break up again.

Germanic Neopaganism is primarily bound together by common symbological and social concepts. Personal character and virtue is emphasized: truthfulness, self-reliance, and hospitality are important moral distinctions, underpinning an especially cherished notion of honour.

Heathenry notably lacks any discussion of redemption, salvation, or perfection, as well as their conceptual precursors. Although some adherents theorize an afterlife that involves a kind of rough justice, the Heathen moral system parts ways with other religions in its' egoist foundations. Heathenry does not formalize restraint on individual behavior. For example, it is inimical to lists of wholesale injunctions against specific behaviors.

Comparison of the Nine Noble Virtues of modern heathenry, which are loosely based on the Havamal can be contrasted with the Judeo-Christian Ten Commandments. Such a comparison shows that it is not the actual behaviour (such as "thou shalt not steal") which are prescribed, but rather an emphasis on character traits, such as "truth", "self reliance" and "honour". It is left to the individual to figure out that stealing in most contexts will be in violation of such ideals. Consequently, some actions which other religions condemn wholesale, may be considered virtues in Heathenry, as long as they are carried out shrewdly and in accord with personal honour, both in the eyes of the individual and the community. Individual pride is one such example.

Germanic paganism reveres the natural environment in principle; but, unlike some nature-oriented Neopagan movements, Germanic Neopaganism opposes neither technology nor its material rewards. More mystical currents of Heathenry may be critical of industrialization or modern society, but even such criticism will focus on decadence, lack of virtue or balance, rather than being a radical criticism of technology itself.

Wyrd is a concept of fatalism or determinism, similar to some Graeco-Roman concepts of destiny, and sometimes personified analogous to the Moirae (see Norns).

Rites

  • Blót is the term for the historical Norse sacrifice in honour of the gods, usually focusing on one of the gods in the pantheon. Asatru blóts are often celebrated outdoors in nature, the celebrants sometimes clad in home-made Viking Age attire. A blót may be highly formalized, but the underlying intent resembles inviting and having an honored guest or family member in for dinner. Food and drink may be offered. Most of this will be consumed by the participants, and some of the drink will be poured out onto the soil as a libation. Home-brewed mead as the "Germanic" drink par excellance is popular.
  • Sumbel (also spelled symbel) is a Norse and Anglo-Saxon drinking rite in which an intoxicating drink (usually mead or ale) is passed around an assembled circle. At each passing of the drink, participants make a short speech, usually following the pattern of "Toast-Boast-Oath", see Bragarfull. The Toast honors some mentor, revered relative, or favorite god of the participant. The Boast is an opportunity for the participant to honour himself in terms of some good work accomplished. The Oath is a promise to carry out some good work in the future. Participants are not required to say anything and may simply pass the drink along. Oaths made during Sumbel are considered binding upon the individuals making them. Another common pattern is to toast to a god or virtue, then a hero or ancestor, and the final round being either open, or else given to either a boast or an oath.
  • Seid (Old Norse seiðr) is a shamanistic rite associated with altered states of consciousness. It is only practiced by a minority of Neopagans; in particular, Diana Paxson and her group, Hrafnar are reconstructing seid from available historical material, particularly its oracular form. Jan Fries traces seid as an inspiration for his "seething" shamanic technique, though he is less concerned with precise historical reconstruction. The berserkergangr may be described as a sort of religious ecstasy, associated with Odin.

Artistic Output And Influence

Grown out of 19th century Romanticism, the Viking revival had associations with the Gothic novel and Romantic art such as the Pre-Raphaelites or the art nouveau. Also of note is the influence of Richard Wagner's "Ring Cycle." Artistic taste of Asatru adherents is often related to the High Fantasy genre based on Germanic mythology. New Age currents are another influence. These elements blend with traditional Germanic folklore.

There have been several novels published by Heathens, particularly Diana Paxson and Kveldulf Gundarsson under the name Stephen Grundy, both drawing on the Volsunga Saga and Nibelungenlied for inspiration.

Neofolk music in particular, counts Germanic paganism as one of its largest and most obvious influences. Many of the instruments used are traditional, and the music is largely acoustic.

The Black metal genre at the time of its formation in 1980s Norway was deeply anti-Christian, and had a stated goal of removing the influence of Christianity and other non-Scandinavian religions from Norwegian culture and to effect a return to the nation's Norse roots. The genre continues to be centered on Pagan (Pagan metal) or Satanic imagery, anti-Christian lyrics and occult themes. Often, there are also traits of White supremacy movements, particularly in the National Socialist black metal subgenre. Other subgenres of heavy metal with Neopagan connections include Viking metal and Folk metal.

Symbolism

Popular symbols of Asatru/Germanic Neopaganism are the Valknut, Mjollnir and Irminsul or Yggdrasil and the Triskelion. Depictions of Odin are also common. Runes are popular, in particular the Odal rune (see Odalism). Odinic Rite additionally claims the Fylfot (Swastika) as an "ancient Odinist symbol". The Black Sun is a symbol used by Neonazi and occult currents. Additionally, the "Gibor rune", as well as isolated use of the "Sig" and Tyr runes may indicate a Neonazi background (see also Thor Steinar).

List of Organizations

With the frequent renaming, merging and splitting of organizations, it is difficult to give a clear picture; the list below, sorted geographically, includes associations with a certain amount of structure and stability.

See also


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