Puerto Rico
Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico Commonwealth of Puerto Rico | |
|---|---|
| Motto: Joannes Est Nomen Eius (Latin: John is his name) | |
| Anthem: La Borinqueña | |
 | |
| Capital and largest city | San Juan |
| Official languages | Spanish, English |
| Government | Commonwealth |
| Independence | |
• Water (%) | 1.6 |
| Population | |
• July 2004 estimate | 3,916,632 (Ranked(a)) |
• 2000 census | 3,957,988 |
| GDP (PPP) | 2004 estimate |
• Total | $78.8 billion (Ranked(a)) |
• Per capita | $20,231 (Ranked(a)) |
| Currency | United States dollar (USD) |
| Time zone | UTC-4 (AST) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC-4 (No DST) |
| Calling code | 1-787 and +1-939 |
| ISO 3166 code | PR |
| Internet TLD | .pr |
(a)Puerto Rico is not ranked because it is a dependency of the United States. | |
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico) is a self-governing polity in association with the United States located east of the Dominican Republic in the northeastern Caribbean. Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Greater Antilles, includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands and keys, including Mona, Vieques, and Culebra.
The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States is the subject of ongoing debate in the island. Supporters of maintaining the status quo (i.e., Commonwealth status) insist that upon attaining this status, Puerto Rico entered into a voluntary association with the U.S. "in the nature of a compact", but opponents of Commonwealth disagree: according to them, Puerto Rico is no more than an unincorporated organized territory of the U.S., subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress. According to several status polls, nearly half the population believes that Puerto Rico should join the United States as a state.
History
When Europeans first arrived, the island of Puerto Rico was inhabited by a group of Arawak Indians known as Taínos. The Taínos called the island "Borikén." The first European contact was made by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage to the Antilles, on November 19, 1493. Some say that Puerto Rico was not discovered by Columbus but by Martín Alonso Pinzón in 1492 when he separated from Columbus and went exploring on his own. The Pinzón family was given one year by the Spanish court to start a settlement in Puerto Rico which would give them a claim to the island. However, they did not succeed. Originally named San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, the island ultimately took the name of Puerto Rico (Rich Port), while the name San Juan is now delegated to its capital and largest city. Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León became the island's first governor to take office, while Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first appointed governor, although he never arrived on the island.
The island was soon colonized and briefly became an important stronghold and port for the Spanish empire in the Caribbean. However, colonial emphasis during the late 17th–18th centuries focused on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers. Concerned about threats from its European enemies, over the centuries various forts and walls were built to protect the port of San Juan. Fortresses such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal were built. The French, Dutch and English made attempts to capture Puerto Rico, but failed to wrest long-term occupancy of the island.
In 1809, while Napoleon occupied the majority of the Iberian peninsula, a populist assembly based in Cadiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the Spanish Court. The representative Ramon Power y Giralt died soon after arriving in Spain; and constitutional reforms were reversed when autocratic monarchy was restored. Nineteenth century reforms augmented the population and economy, and expanded the local character of the island. After the rapid gains of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba became the sole New World remnants of the large Spanish empire.
Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "El Grito de Lares The uprising was easily and quickly crushed. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican nation, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Later, another political stronghold was the autonomist movement originated by Roman Baldorioty de Castro and, toward the end of the century, by Luis Múñoz Rivera. In 1897, Múñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to a Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. The following year, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to annul any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure.
On July 25, 1898 at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico, being a colony of Spain, was invaded by the United States of America with a landing at Guánica. Spain was forced to cede Puerto Rico, along with Cuba and the Phillippines, to the United States under the Treaty of Paris (1898) [1]. The twentieth century began under the military regime of the United States with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. In 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act approved by the United States Congress granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. Natural disasters and the Great Depression impoverished the island. Some political leaders demanded change; some, like Pedro Albizu Campos, would lead a nationalist (The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party) movement in favor of independence. He would eventually die by what he claimed was a conspiracy set in place by the U.S. Federal Government. Múñoz Rivera initially favored independence, but saw a severe decline of the Puerto Rican economy, as well as growing violence and uprisings, at the hands of the U.S. government and opted to create the "commonwealth" option as an eventual stepping stone to full independence.
Change in the nature of governance of the island came about during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise spearheaded by Luis Múñoz Marín and others, and which culminated with the appointment by President Harry S. Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesús T. Piñero. In 1948, the United States granted the right to democratically elect the governor of Puerto Rico. Luis Múñoz Marín would become the first elected governor of Puerto Rico.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. In response, Truman allowed for a genuinely democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine the status of its relationship to the United States [2].
Puerto Rico adopted its own constitution in 1952 which adopted a commonwealth relationship with the United States [3][4]. During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced a rapid industrialization, with such projects as Operation Bootstrap which aimed to industrialize Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based into manufacturing-based.
Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. A number of plebiscites have been held in recent decades to decide whether Puerto Rico should request independence, enhanced commonwealth status, or statehood. Narrow victories by commonwealth supporters over statehood advocates have not yielded substantial changes in the relationship between the island and the United States. However, commonwealth--which once had the support of well over 75% of the voting population--now has less than 50% support. This decrease has been met with an expanded support for statehood for the island, with both groups holding an equal share of support. The independence ideal, once the second leading ideology on the island in the general elections, is now supported by 3–6% of the voting population.
Geography
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of the latter five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited through large parts of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources.
The mainland measures some 170 km by 60 km (105 miles by 35 miles). It has a population of approximately 4 million. The capital city, San Juan, is located on the main island's north coast and has a population of approximately 430,000.
The mainland is mostly mountainous with coastal areas in the north and south regions of the island. The main mountainous range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation point of Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta (1338 meters), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque with a maximum elevation of 1,065m.
Some beautiful beaches on the western side of the island are Jobos Beach, Maria's Beach, Domes Beach and Sandy Beach.
Puerto Rico has nine lakes (none of them natural) and more than 50 rivers. Most of these rivers are born in the "Cordillera Central." The rivers in the northern region of the island are bigger and with higher flow capacity than those of the south region.
Geology
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, which are overlain by younger Oligocene to recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern Oligocene to recent carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. These rocks may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North America plates. This means that it is currently being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by the interaction of these plates. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.
Politics
The island government is based on the U.S. Republic system composed of 3 branches: the Executive branch headed by the Governor, the Legislative branch consisting of a bicameral Legislative Assembly (a Senate and a House of Representatives) and the Judicial branch. The legal system is based on a mix of the Civil Law and the Common Law systems. The governor as well as legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor and approved by the senate. The island is divided into 78 municipalities, which elect a mayor and municipal assembly.
In 1950, the US Congress afforded Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention, contingent on the results of a referendum, where the electorate would determine if they wished to organize their own government pursuant to a constitution of their own choosing. Puerto Ricans expressed their support for this measure in a 1951 referendum, which gave voters a yes-or-no choice for the commonwealth status, defined as a ‘permanent association with a federal union.’ A second referendum was held to approve the constitution, which was adopted in 1952. Prior to approving the new constitution, the Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. In English, the convention chose the word “Commonwealth,” meaning a “politically organized community” or “State,” which is simultaneously connected to a larger political system and hence does not have an independent and separate status. Unable to translate the word into Spanish, the convention adopted a translation, “Estado Libre Asociado” (ELA), which is literally translated into English as “Free Associated State.”
Under the 1952 constitution, Puerto Rico is a commonwealth of the United States and is permitted a high degree of autonomy. Puerto Rico does not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress; neither does it have any delegates to the U.S. Electoral College, and therefore Puerto Rican citizens have no representation in the U.S. Presidential elections. A non-voting Resident Commissioner is elected by the residents of Puerto Rico to the U.S. Congress acting as an ambassador for the people of Puerto Rico. Residents of the island do not pay federal income tax on income from island sources, Although they pay hefty local taxes, island residents are not subject to federal taxation, as a result of a US Supreme Court Decision that the United States treaty that acquired Puerto Rico from Spain superseded the United States Constitution, so that the United States citizens of Puerto Rico are not subject to the Revenue Clause of the United States Constitution. Further, island residents pay social security taxes and other federal taxes. Also, they have limited access to several key federal programs. As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans are subject to military service and most federal laws.
For the past fifty years, a single issue has dominated Puerto Rican politics: its political status vis-à-vis the United States. A U.S. territory since 1898, Puerto Rico today is torn by profound ideological rifts, as represented by its political parties, which stand for the three distinct future political scenarios: statehood, an enhanced commonwealth status, and independence. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current Commonwealth status, the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence.
In 1967, Congress tested political interests of the Puerto Rican people by passing a plebiscite Act that allowed a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite granted by Congress for a choice on three status options. Puerto Rican leaders had lobbied for such an opportunity repeatedly, in 1898, 1912, 1914, 1919, 1923, 1929, 1932, 1939, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1956, and 1960. Following the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in Congressional committees. In a 1993 plebiscite, in which Congress played a more substantial role, the commonwealth status option on PR’s status received 48% of the vote, with 46% voting for statehood, 4% for independence, and a voter turnout of 73% of the population.
Subsequently, a 1998 plebiscite presented a choice among statehood and three other status formula defined by the pro-statehood legislative majority: commonwealth status, independence, and a form of free association under a treaty with the United States. Provision was also made for a fifth choice: "none of the above," the rejection of all such status options. In the plebiscite, the commonwealth status was depicted, as subject to the plenary powers of Congress under the territorial clause, with a revocable US citizenship. The pro-commonwealth party, unwilling to favor commonwealth status if subject to the plenary powers of congress and entailing a type of American citizenship revocable at the will of congress, campaigned for the fifth choice, which obtained 50.3% of the vote, as compared to 46.5% for statehood, 2.5% for independence, 0.3% for the type of free association presented in the ballot, and a 0.1% percent for commonwealth as defined by the legislature. The winning choice was thus "none of the above."
Because past processes for self-determination in Puerto Rico have not had Congressional support, the political parties in power have manipulated ballot options to favor the alternative of their predilection. The other political parties tend to resist and voice their concerns over the legitimacy of the process.Ultimately, every vote fails as either non-binding upon United States Congress or because viable and appropriate status options have been excluded from the ballot.
Puerto Ricans living on the island are not counted among the Hispanics residing in the U.S.; in fact, they are not included in the U.S. population count at all, although all Puerto Ricans are statutory U.S. citizens. Puerto Rico also is not included in the Current Population Surveys that the Census Bureau conducts to update its decennial census.
Puerto Rico's Political Status and International Law
Although Puerto Rico is, politically speaking, a self-governing commonwealth associated with the United States, Puerto Ricans and people from other nations refer to Puerto Rico as a país, the Spanish word for country or nation. This is a very common and accepted international status given to all dependent territories, also called dependent "states" by the United Nations. The United Nations has intervened in the past to evaluate the legitimacy of Puerto Rico's political status, to ensure that the island's government structure complies with the standards of self-government that constitute the basic tenets of the United Nations Charter, its covenants, and its principles of international law.
On Nov. 27, 1953, shortly after establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the UN approved Resolution 748 by a vote of 20 to 16, with 18 abstentions, removing PR’s classification as a non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter of the United Nations. This resolution has not been revoked by the UN even though the political status is still debated in many international forums.
For a territory to be deemed self-governing, the United Nations require:
"
- (a) Legislative representation. Representation without discrimination in the central lgislative organs, on the same basis as other inhabitants and regions [within the governing nation].
- (b) Participation of the population. Effective participation of population in the government of the territory
- (1) Is there an adequate and appropriate electoral and representation system?
- (2) Is this electoral system conducted without direct or indirect interference from a foreign government?
- (c) Citizenship. Citizenship without discrimination on the same basis as other inhabitants
- (d) Government officials. Eligibility of officials from the territory for all public offices of the central authority, by appointment or election, on the same basis as those from other parts of the country."
The General Assembly did not apply its list of criteria to Puerto Rico for determining whether or not self-governing status had been achieved. In fact, in a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated that Puerto Rico’s current status “does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self government.” The House Committee concluded that Puerto Rico is still an unincorporated territory of the United States under the territorial clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by Congress, and that Congress can also withdraw at any time the American citizenship now enjoyed by the residents of Puerto Rico as long as it achieves a legitimate Federal purpose, in a manner reasonably related to that purpose.
The status of Commonwealth has been, and continues to be, a temporary solution. According to a report by the President’s Task Force on Puerto Rico’s Status, released in December 2005, it is not possible “to bind future Congresses to any particular arrangement for Puerto Rico as a Commonwealth.” This determination was based on articles in the U.S. Constitution regarding territorries. The governor of Puerto Rico promised to challenge the task force report.
Political divisions
As a Commonwealth associated with the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. Government, but there are 78 municipalities at the second level (Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez). Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a 4 year term.
The first municipality (back then called town) of Puerto Rico, San Juan, was founded in 1521. In the 16th century two more municipalities were established, Coamo (1570) and San Germán (1570). Three more municipalities were established in the 17th century. These were Arecibo (1614), Aguada (1692) and Ponce (1692). The 18th and 19th century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico. 30 municipalities were established in the 18th century and 34 more were established in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century. The last municipality was Florida, founded in 1971 [5].
The municipalities are further subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors.
Economy
The economic conditions in Puerto Rico have improved dramatically since the Great Depression due to external investment in capital-intensive industry such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions.
Puerto Ricans had a per capita GDP estimate of $17,700 for 2004 [6] , which demonstrates a growth over the $14,412. level measured in the 2002 Current Population Survey by the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund [7]. In that survey, Puerto Ricans have a 48.2% poverty rate. By comparison, the poorest State of the Union, Mississippi, had a median level of $21,587, according to the U.S. Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey, 2002 to 2004 Annual Social and Economic Supplements [8].
Demographics
Puerto Rico has sometimes been said to have a "White" majority, an extinct Amerindian population, persons of mixed ancestry, Africans and a small Asian minority. However, broad US census categories have disallowed the mixed ancestry of most Puerto Ricans to be officially acknowledged; and most on the island tend to agree that what is "Puerto Rican" is generally a varied combination of Amerindian, African, and Spanish traits. According to a 2003 study, funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, Puerto Rican ancestry was measured through both paternal and matrilineal ancestry. The study found that in relation to matrilineal ancestry as revealed by mtDNA, 62% of all Puerto Ricans were shown to have a female Amerindian ancestor, 27% to have a female African ancestor and 12% to have a female European ancestor. Conversely, patrilineal input as indicated by the Y chromosome, showed that 75% of all Puerto Ricans possessed a male European ancestor, 20% had a male African ancestor and less than 5% were shown to have had a male Amerindian ancestor.[9] These combinations in turn vary as Puerto Ricans can be of any variety of combined ancestries, while only 1/10 Puerto Ricans can probably claim exclusive European ancestry, while other Puerto Ricans probably can vary from being predominantly European to predominantly African with few if any Puerto Ricans being exclusively of Native American descent.
During the 2000 US Census Puerto Ricans were asked to identify which racial catagory with which they personally identify. 95.8% answered with only one choice. The breakdown is as follows: [10]. 80.5% described themselves as "white"; 8% described themselves as "Black"; and only 0.4% described themselves as "Native American." These #s demonstrate that racial terms are relative, not absolute, and highlight the potential for confusion when they are used in a definitive and distinct way.
During the 1800s hundreds of Corsican, French, and Portuguese, along with a large numbers of immigrants from the Canary Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America, arrived in Puerto Rico. Other settlers have included Irish, Scots, Germans, and many others who were granted land from Spain during the Cedula de Gracias of 1815, which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land.
Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history as well. Starting in the Post-WWII period, due to poverty, cheap air fare, and promotion by the island government, waves of Puerto Ricans moved to the mainland United States, particularly New York City. This continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and the birth rate declined. Emigration continues at the present time, and this, combined with Puerto Rico's greatly lowered birth rate, suggests that the island's population will age rapidly and start to decline sometime within the next couple of decades.
According to the 2000 US Census, 95% of the population consider themselves of Puerto Rican descent (regardless of race or skin color), making Puerto Rico one of the most culturally homogenous societies in the world [11]. Since its colonization, Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only Spain, but from Latin America as well. Cubans, Dominicans, Colombians, Panamanians, Curacaoans, and Santomeños can also be accounted for as settlers. The variety of surnames which exist in Puerto Rico suggests widespread immigration to the island from many regions.
Languages
The official languages of the island are Spanish and English. Spanish is the primary language in business and government; English is taught as a second language in schools. Spanish is the first language of most residents.
In 1991, Governor Rafael Hernandez Colon signed a decree declaring Spanish as the sole official language of the island's government. Upon signing this law into effect, English had lost its status as an official language. While many applauded the governor's decision, mainly members of the parties supporting commonwealth-status and indepedence, statehood supporters saw it as a threat to their ideology. The signing of the law also brought the island acclaim, as the people of Puerto Rico won the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award in literature in 1991. The award is given annually to individuals and organizations worldwide for their defense and contribution to the growth of the Spanish language by Principe Felipe of Spain.
Upon his election as governor in 1993, Governor Pedro Rosello overturned the law and re-established English as an official language. This was seen by many as a move by the pro-statehood governor to move the island closer to statehood, something that never came about under his two consecutive four-year terms.
Religion
The Roman Catholic religion has been historically dominant and is the religion of the majority of Puerto Ricans (census: 70%), although the presence of Protestant, Latter-Day Saint (Mormon) and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under American sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an interconfessional country.
Taíno religious practices have to a degree been rediscovered/reinvented by a few handfuls of advocates. Kongo belief, known as Mayombe or Palo, has been around since the days of the arrival of enslaved Africans. Although Santeria (stronger and more organized in Cuba) is practiced by some, Palo Mayombe (an African belief system of Bantu origin) finds more adherence among individuals who practice some form of African Traditional Religion.
See also Protestants in Puerto Rico.
Culture
Education
Education in Puerto Rico is divided into four levels. These are elementary, intermediate, high school and the university level. Students can attend either a public or a private school. Public schools are run by the state while private schools are run by private institutions, predominantly the Roman Catholic Church. The only public university system in Puerto Rico is the University of Puerto Rico.
Sports
Puerto Rico currently has its own Olympic team and participates in the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics, as well as international representation in many other sporting events including the Pan-American Games, the Central American Games, and the Caribbean World Series. Further, it has its own representatives in beauty pageants including Miss World and Miss Universe.
Boxing, basketball, and baseball are popular. They have their own professional baseball leagues, though San Juan hosted the Montréal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals.
On September 29, 2005 Major League Baseball announced that opening rounds of the newly formed World Baseball Classic, a 16-country tournament featuring top players, would be held in San Juan in March 2006.
See also
- List of Puerto Rico-related topics
- Art in Puerto Rico
- Black history in Puerto Rico
- Chinese Puerto Rican
- Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico
- Cuisine of Puerto Rico
- Holidays in Puerto Rico
- Irish immigration to Puerto Rico
- Literature of Puerto Rico
- List of universities and colleges in Puerto Rico
- List of movies set in Puerto Rico
- List of Taínos
- List of Puerto Rican phrases, words and slangs
- Military history of Puerto Rico
- Music of Puerto Rico
- Pop culture in Puerto Rico
- Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii
- Sports in Puerto Rico
- Taínos
External links
Official sites
- Economic Development Bank
- Government Development Bank
- Government of Puerto Rico
- Governor
- Institute of Puerto Rican Culture
- Integrated Transport Alternative
- Puerto Rico Convention Bureau
- Puerto Rico House of Representatives
- Puerto Rico Senate
- Puerto Rico Technoecnomic Corridor
- Puerto Rico Tourism Company
- Puerto Rico Trade
- Resident Commissioner (US House)
- State Electoral Commission (CEEPUR)
- University of Puerto Rico
- Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company
References
- ^ Treaty of Paris (1898).
- ^ Act of July 3, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319.
- ^ Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in Spanish (original).
- ^ Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in English (translation).
- ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Puerto Rico.
- ^ PRLDEF.
- ^ U.S. Census - Median Family Income.
- ^ Indian Country Today, October 6, 2003.
- ^ Puerto Rico DP-1 Profile of General Demographics Characteristics : 2000.
- ^ LinktoPR.com - Fundación de los Pueblos.
- ^ General Assembly Resolutions 8th Session United Nations.
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