Saladin
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Saladin (1137 or 1138–1193; Template:Ll: Selaheddîn Eyûbî; Arabic: Salah ad-Din Yusuf Ibn Ayyub; صلاح الدين يوسف ابن ايوب; Salah ad-Din is an honorific that means The Righteousness of the Faith in Arabic) was a 12th century Kurdish Muslim warrior who founded the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria. He was also renowned in both the Christian and Muslim worlds for his leadership and military prowess tempered by his chivalry and merciful nature during the Crusades.
Rise to power
Saladin was born into a Kurdish family in Tikrit and was sent to Damascus to finish his education. His father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, was governor of Baalbek. In Damascus, Saladin lived for ten years at the court of Nur ad-Din (Nureddin).
After an initial military education under the command of his uncle, Nur ad-Din's lieutenant Shirkuh, who was representing Nur ad-Din on campaigns against a faction of the Fatimid caliphate of Egypt in the 1160s, Saladin eventually succeeded the defeated faction and his uncle as vizier in 1169. There, he inherited a difficult role defending Egypt against the incursions of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, under Amalric I. His position was tenuous at first; no one expected him to last long in Egypt where there had been many changes of government in previous years due to a long line of child caliphs fought over by competing viziers. As the leader of a foreign army from Syria, he also had no control over the Shi'ite Egyptian army, which was led in the name of the now otherwise powerless caliph Al-Adid.
When the caliph died, in September 1171, Saladin had the imams pronounce the name of Al-Mustadi, the Abbassid caliph in Baghdad, at Friday prayers, and the weight of authority simply deposed the old line. Now Saladin ruled Egypt, but officially as the representative of Nur ad-Din, who himself conventionally recognized the Abbassid caliph.
Saladin revitalised the economy of Egypt, reorganised the military forces and, following the advice of his father, he stayed away from any conflicts with Nur ad-Din, his formal lord, after he had become the real ruler over Egypt. He waited until Nur ad-Din's death before starting serious military actions: at first against smaller Muslim states, then directing them against the Crusaders.
With Nur ad-Din's death (1174), he assumed the title of sultan in Egypt. There he declared independence from the Seljuks, and he proved to be the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty and restored Sunnism in Egypt. He extended his territory westwards in the maghreb, and when his uncle was sent up the Nile to pacify some resistance of the former Fatimid supporters, he continued on down the Red Sea to conquer Yemen.
Fighting the Crusaders
On two occasions, in 1171 and 1173, Saladin retreated from an invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These had been launched by Nur ad-Din, and Saladin hoped that the Crusader kingdom would remain intact, as a buffer state between Egypt and Syria, until Saladin could gain control of Syria as well. Nur ad-Din and Saladin were headed towards open war on these counts when Nur ad-Din died in 1174. Nur ad-Din's heir as-Salih Ismail al-Malik was a mere boy, in the hands of court eunuchs, and died in 1181.
Immediately after Nur ad-Din's death, Saladin marched on Damascus, and was welcomed into the city. He reinforced his legitimacy there in the time-honored way, by marrying Nur ad-Din's widow. Aleppo and Mosul, on the other hand, the two other largest cities that Nur ad-Din had ruled, were never taken, but Saladin managed to impose his influence and authority on them in 1176 and 1186 respectively. While he was occupied in besieging Aleppo, on May 22, 1176 the "Hashshashins" attempted to murder him.
While Saladin was consolidating his power in Syria, he generally left the Crusader kingdom alone, although he was usually victorious whenever he did meet the Crusaders in battle. One exception was the Battle of Montgisard on November 25, 1177. He was defeated by the combined forces of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem, Raynald of Chatillon and the Knights Templar. Only one tenth of his army made it back to Egypt.
There was peace between Saladin and the Crusader States in 1178. He was actually recovering from his defeat and rebuilding his army. Saladin renewed his attacks in 1179 , defeating the Crusaders at the Battle of Jacob's Ford within the same year. However, the Crusaders repeatedly provoked him. Raynald of Chatillon, in particular, harassed Muslim trading and pilgrimage routes with a fleet on the Red Sea, a water route that Saladin needed to keep open. Worse, and what made him a legendary monster in the Muslim world, Raynald threatened to attack the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. In retaliation, Saladin besieged Kerak, Raynald's fortress in Oultrejordain, in 1183 and 1184. Then Raynald looted a caravan of pilgrims on the Hajj in 1185, forcing Saladin's response.
In July of 1187, Saladin invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem. On July 4, 1187 they were faced at the Battle of Hattin by the combined forces Guy of Lusignan, King consort of Jerusalem, and Raymond III of Tripoli. The Crusader army was largely annihilated in what was a major disaster for the Crusaders and a turning point in the history of the Crusades. Saladin captured Raynald and was personally responsible for his decapitation. Guy of Lusignan was also captured but his life was spared.
Soon Saladin had taken back almost every Crusader city. He recaptured Jerusalem on October 2, 1187, after 88 years of Crusader rule (see Siege of Jerusalem). Only Tyre held out: Saladin had allowed the remnants of the Christian armies and people to escape there, and the city was now commanded by the formidable Conrad of Montferrat. He strengthened Tyre's defences and withstood two sieges by Saladin. In 1188, Saladin released Guy of Lusignan and returned him to his wife Queen regnant Sibylla of Jerusalem. Both rulers were allowed to seek refuge at Tyre, but were turned away by Conrad, who did not recognise Guy as King. Guy then set about besieging Acre (see Siege of Acre).
Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem prompted the Third Crusade, financed in England by a special "Saladin tithe". This Crusade took back Acre, and Saladin's army met King Richard I of England at the Battle of Arsuf on September 7, 1191. Saladin's relationship with Richard was one of chivalrous mutual respect as well as military rivalry; both were celebrated in the courtly romances that developed in Northern Europe. When Richard was wounded, Saladin even offered the services of his personal physician, a signal favor, for Muslim medical practice was the best in the Western world. At Arsuf, when Richard lost his horse, Saladin sent him two replacements. They even considered making peace by marrying Richard's sister Joan to Saladin's brother Al-Adil, with Jerusalem to be their dowry, although these negotiations fell through due to religious concerns on both sides.
The two came to an agreement over Jerusalem in the treaty of Ramla in 1192, whereby it would remain in Muslim hands but would be open to Christian pilgrimages; the treaty reduced the Latin Kingdom to a strip along the coast from Tyre to Jaffa.
Not long after Richard's departure, Saladin died in 1193 at Damascus. When they opened Saladin's treasury they found there was not enough money to pay for his funeral; he had given his money away to those in need. His tomb, located in the Umayyad mosque, is now a major tourist attraction. His tomb is one of the most visited in the world.
Recognition
Despite his fierce opposition to the Christian powers, Saladin achieved a great reputation in Europe as a chivalrous knight, so much so that there existed by the 14th century an epic poem about his exploits, and Dante included him among the virtuous pagan souls in Limbo. The noble Saladin appears in a sympathetic light in Sir Walter Scott's The Talisman (1825). Despite the Crusaders' slaughter of Muslim men, women, and children when they conquered Jerusalem before his birth in 1099, Saladin granted amnesty and free passage to all common Catholics (the Greek Orthodox Christians were treated better, because they opposed the crusades) and even to the defeated Christian army.
Despite the differences in beliefs, Saladin was respected by Christian lords, Richard especially. They became almost friends, in a strange sort of way. Richard once praised Saladin as a great prince, saying that he was without doubt the greatest and most powerful leader in the Islamic world. Saladin in his turn stated that he would rather lose Jerusalem to Richard than to anyone else. After the treaty, Saladin and Richard sent each other many gifts as tokens of respect. However, these two military leaders never met face to face.
The name Salah ad Din means "Righteousness of the Faith", and through the ages Saladin has been an inspiration for Muslims in many respects. Modern Muslim rulers have sought to capitalize on the reputation of Saladin. A governorate centered around Tikrit in modern Iraq, Salah ad Din, is named after Saladin, and Saddam Hussein, who was born near Tikrit, often portrayed himself as a latter-day Saladin.
Few structures associated with Saladin survive within modern cities. Saladin first fortified the Citadel of Cairo (1176 - 1183), which had been a domed pleasure pavilion with a fine view in more peaceful times. In Syria even the smallest cities centered on a defensible citadel, and Saladin introduced this essential feature to Egypt.
Among the forts he built was Qalaat Al-Gindi, a mountaintop fortress and caravanserai in the Sinai. The fortress overlooks a large wadi which was the convergence of several caravan routes that linked Egypt and the Middle East. Inside the structure are a number of large vaulted rooms hewn out of rock, including the remains of shops and a water cistern. A notable archaeological site, it was investigated in 1909 by a French team under Jules Barthoux. [1]
Burial site
Saladin is buried in a mausoleum in the garden outside the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany donated a new sarcophagus in marble to the mausoleum. Saladin was however not placed in it. Instead the mausoleum now has two sarcophagi: one empty in marble and one in wood containing the body of Saladin.
Saladin in Media
- Saladin is portrayed by Bernard Kay in the 1965 Doctor Who serial "The Crusade". In the same production, Julian Glover portrays Richard the Lionheart. The script portrays Richard far less favorably than Saladin, in accordance with the Romantic tradition established by Walter Scott's The Talisman.
- In the computer game Age of Empires II, Saladin is portrayed favourably, yet vicious when threatened.
- Saladin is a character in the computer game Civilization IV.
- In the computer game Metal Gear Solid, the character known as Sniper Wolf refers to the character Big Boss as "Saladin" as a nickname.
- Saladin is portrayed by Ghassan Massoud in the film Kingdom of Heaven
See also
External links
- Saladin
- Saladin: several links
- Richard and Saladin: Warriors of the Third Crusade
- De expugnatione terrae sanctae per Saladinum A European account of Saladin's conquests of the Crusader states, written a few years after his capture of Jersusalem, including an eyewitness account of the siege of Jerusalem supplied by a soldier who was was wounded there. In Latin
Reference
- Alan K. Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs: 1986