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Republic of Cuba
República de Cuba
Motto: Spanish: Patria y Libertad
(English: "Homeland and Freedom")
Anthem: La Bayamesa (The Bayamo Song)
Location of Cuba
Capital
and largest city
Havana
Official languagesSpanish
GovernmentCommunist State
Independence
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• 2005 estimate
11,345,670 (70th)
• 2002 census
11,177,743
GDP (PPP)2004 estimate
• Total
$33.9 billion (89th)
• Per capita
$3,000 (126th)
HDI (2005)0.817
very high (52nd)
CurrencyPeso (CUP)
Convertible peso 1 (CUC)
Time zoneUTC-5 (EST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC-4 ((Starts April 1, end date varies))
Calling code53
ISO 3166 codeCU
Internet TLD.cu
1 1993–2004, the U.S. dollar was used in addition to the peso until the dollar was replaced by the convertible peso.
For other uses, see Cuba (disambiguation).

The Republic of Cuba (Spanish: República de Cuba, IPA: [re'puβlika ðe ˈkuβa]) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest of the Greater Antilles), the Isle of Youth and very numerous adjacent small islands. The name Cuba is said to be derived from the Taíno word cubanacán, meaning "a central place." At least as early as colonial times Cuba was the name given to areas near Santiago de Cuba. It is located in the northern Caribbean at the confluence of the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Cuba is south of the eastern United States, and the Bahamas, west of the Turks and Caicos Islands and Haiti, and east of Mexico. The Cayman Islands and Jamaica are south of eastern Cuba.

History

Main article: History of Cuba

Cuba was first visited by Europeans when explorer Christopher Columbus made landfall there for the first time on October 28, 1492, at the eastern tip, in the Cazigazgo of Baracoa. In 1511 Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the Spanish invasion, subdued the indigenous population, to become governor of Cuba for Spain and built a villa in Baracoa, which became the first capital of the island and also in 1518 [2] was technically the seat of the (Diocese) of the first bishops of Cuba. At that time Cuba was populated by at least two distinct indigenous peoples: Taíno and Ciboney (or Siboney). Both groups were prehistoric Neolithic, perhaps copper age, cultures. Some scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba, the Lucaya of the Bahamas, Jamaica, and to a lesser extent from Haiti and Quisqueya (approximately the Dominican Republic), since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Most of pre-Colombian inhabitants of Cuba, including the Siboney, can in first approximation be classified under the general group of neo-Taíno. The Taíno were skilled farmers and the Ciboney were a hunter-gatherer society with supplemental farming. Taínos and Ciboney took part in similar customs and beliefs, one being the sacred ritual practiced using tobacco called cohoba, known in English as smoking.

The Taínos (Island Arawak) were part of a cultural group commonly called the Arawak, which extends far into South America. Residues of Taíno poetry, songs, sculpture, and art are found today throughout the major Antilles. It is well known that these neo-Taíno had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. Paul Sidney Martin [3], that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Arawak and other such cultural groups are responsible for the flourishing development of perhaps 60% of crops in common use today and some major industrial materials such as rubber. Europeans were shown by the indigenous Cubans how to cultivate tobacco and to smoke it in various ways.

Approximately 16 to 60 thousand, or perhaps many more, indigenous from the Taíno and Ciboney nations inhabited Cuba before colonization. The Indigenous Cuban population, including the Ciboney and the Taíno, were forced into encomiendas during the Spanish subjugation of the island of Cuba. One famous mainly indigenous town was Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana. Others were Jiguani, and Baracoa. Many indigenous Cubans fell victim to the brutality of Spanish conquistadors (as witnessed and lamented by Bartolomé de Las Casas) and the diseases they brought with them, which were previously unknown to them. Most conquistadors took Taínas as brides or common law wives, or, more commonly, had casual sexual congress with these island women [4] since few Spanish women crossed the Atlantic in those days of conquest. Their children were called mestizo, but the residents called them Guajiro, which originating in a Taino word roughly equivalent to squire has been translated as "one of us." They became the yeomen of Cuban wars neo-Taíno nations. Today, Taíno descendants maintain their heritage near Baracoa.

Cuba had first served as base for Spanish conquest of the mainland of the Americas, but the island was almost depopulated in this effort. After the conquest of the Americas the resulting treasure, mined gold and silver, emeralds, chocolate and several then important plant products such as dyes and medicine was transported in the Spanish treasure fleet from the Americas and later from the Philippines to Spain using Cuban ports as safe harbors along the way. In this period there were further indigenous risings most especially that of Guamá, one of the last Taino leaders to organize resistance to Spanish rule.

But once Taino/Ciboney uprisings were no longer a concern, new ones arose from buccaneers, pirates, and privateers (e.g. Jacques de Sores [5]), Alexander Exquemelin and Henry Morgan) and invasions as other countries (e.g. England Guantánamo Bay) tried to take the possessions that the Spanish had gathered for themselves, and their colonial descendants viewed as their own. Attacks on both ships and cities required Spain to respond by organizing convoys to protect the ships and building forts to protect the cities. However, Cuba’s most effective defense was yellow fever, which killed off invading forces.

File:Cuba modis.jpg
Cuba as seen from space

Spanish mercantilism caused Spain to keep Cuba relatively isolated to external influences, but beginning with the year long occupation of Havana by the British in 1762 at the end of the Seven Years' War, Cuba became more open economically to both the importation of slaves and advances in sugar cultivation and processing. The massive La Cabaña fortress, never taken by assault, which completely dominates Havana Bay was built soon after Havana, exchanged for Florida, was returned to Spain. However, the fortress would later become infamous as a place of execution and imprisonment, not unlike the Bastille in Paris. Cuban colonial forces participated in Spain's efforts during the American Revolutionary War, helping Spain to gain East and West Florida. Between 1791 and 1804, many French fled to Cuba from the Haitian revolution, bringing with them slaves and expertise in sugar refining and coffee growing. Legal and then illegal importation of slaves continued as illustrated by the 1839 Amistad (ship) "mutiny." Cuba became the world's major sugar producer. Spanish rule was severely challenged by slave revolts, independence/annexionist efforts and Narciso Lopez. In 1884, slavery was abolished after having been weakened during the prolonged but finally defeated attempts of the Ten Years' War.

The colony's struggle for independence lasted throughout the second half of the 19th century with the first effort with any success being the Ten Years' War beginning in 1868 . The writer and rebel organizer José Martí landed in Cuba with rebel exiles in 1895, but little more than a month later was killed in battle. He remains the major hero in Cuba to this day, and both the supporters and opponents of the current government claim his legacy. While he expressed a preference for the U.S. Constitution and enjoyed some popularity in the United States, he was concerned about U.S. expansionism.

It is notable that some Taíno first fought the Mambi and then joined them to comprise the Hatuey Regiment [6]. Between 1895 and early 1898 revolution controlled most of the countryside and some towns, but the efforts of the Spanish, who held the major cities, to pacify the island did not cease until the United States occupied the island in the Spanish-American War of 1898. Cuban independence was granted in 1902, though limited by the Platt Amendment, which granted the United States a major influence in Cuban affairs and required Cuba to grant the United States a lease for Guantánamo Bay. Tomás Estrada Palma (term 1902-1906) was Cuba's first peacetime and elected president. Using the provisions of the Platt Amendment, U.S. troops occupied Cuba a second time from 1906 to 1909. The Platt Amendment was revoked in 1934, but the lease of Guantánamo Bay was extended against a nominal sum.

Fulgencio Batista, a leader of the 1933 Sergeants' Revolt that overthrew the transitional government after Gerardo Machado’s dictatorship collapsed, became first the Army Chief of Staff and eventually the man in charge under a series of presidents. In 1940 Cubans elected him President. Under his government, the Congress passed a new progressive constitution. In 1944 he left office when Ramon Grau San-Martin won the popular vote and became President. After four years of peace and economic growth, in 1948 Carlos Prio Socarras was elected in free and democratic elections, as Cubans had gotten used to. However, in 1952 Batista seized power in an almost (a palace guard was killed) bloodless coup three months before the planned election and instituted a mild dictatorship, under which free press, free enterprise, free unions, and human rights were generally respected. Verbal opposition to Batista was common and tolerated. For instance after March 10, 1952 and before January 1, 1959 Castro published 25 articles against Batista, 13 statements attacking Batista and two manifestos while Castro was in the mountains.[7]. These articles were printed in the Cuba press of that time, and no prosecutions resulted.

One of many Cuban Maquinas, a.k.a. Yank tanks

In 1953, Fidel Castro organized an attack on the Moncada barracks, but before entering the barracks, he abandoned his men and ran for refuge, some say to the Cathedral, where he was protected by influence of Monsignor Perez-Serrantes. Castro was captured in the part of the Sierra Maestra east Santiago on the slopes of the "La Gran Piedra" mountain. He was imprisoned and tried, in a trial that abode by due process, found guilty and sentenced to less than 20 years in prison. It is in this venue that Castro gave his "History will Absolve Me" which unfortunately parallels some of Adolph Hitler's words. Castro left jail after 18 months, under a general amnesty by Batista's government. During his time in jail, he had access to all readings he requested, and he freely published his political manifestos. In 1955 he voluntarily left to Mexico, only to return to Cuba on November 1956 with 82 fighters trained by Alberto Bayo (a former colonel in the Spanish Republican Army), and with the help of popular discontent and a strong propaganda campaign by some left-inclined media, managed to overthrow Batista. Batista fled the country on 1 January 1959. Castro established a Soviet-leaning single party Communist state, the first in the Western Hemisphere, although Castro vehemently denied his Marxist-Leninist leanings until 1961.

At the time when Batista was deposed, Cuba had a strong influence from the USA, in its economy and politics as well. Although there were typical social problems common to almost to every developed country of the time, the Cuban economy before Castro was considered solid: Cubans held third place in calorie consumption in Latin America, with 2,682 per person; it ranked third in the world in TV sets per inhabitant, with 18 persons per TV set, and Cuba also had a free and abundant press, with 588 persons per newspaper, surpassed only by Uruguay. Infant mortality rate in Cuba was very low, one of the lowest in the world at that time. It was the fifth country in the continent in relation to the number of college students, one out of 273 inhabitants was a college student, only inferior to USA (61), Argentina, Uruguay and Canada. Cuba’s main crop was sugar cane. The sugar industry was very efficient and was the first contributor to the PIB. Most of Cuba's sugar was exported to the United States because Cuba was given a large quota, which was paid above world prices in part to help domestic US industry. After the revolution, Che Guevara, industrial minister at the time, negotiated with the USSR for the export of Cuban sugar after the US decreased its imports of sugar from Cuba. Under his command, the production of fruits and other historically valuable crops was obliterated, substituted by a succession of failed experimental projects. The most famous of such projects was the subordination of all economic, political and social activities to the production of cane sugar, to reach an impossible goal of 10 million tons per season. This econonomic experiment brought a new chapter of desolation and poverty to Cubans. [8]

The new revolutionary government adopted successive "land reforms" and eventually confiscated almost all private property. At first, Castro was reluctant to discuss his plans for the future, but eventually he declared himself a communist, and with the backing of Che Guevara, explained that he was trying to build socialism in Cuba, focusing on government provided health care and public education, and began close political and economic relations with the Soviet Union and to a lesser extent with China. The USSR long after the Missile Crisis had bases in Cuba (e.g. at Bejucal and Bahia Honda), and the Chinese government still maintains a large electronic surveillance presence especially at a base in Havana Province.

Since Castro came to power, the United States has since progressively enacted legislation intended to isolate Cuba economically via the U.S. embargo and other measures, such as prosecuting US citizens who vacation in Cuba. For more on these issues see the Economy section below.

The Bay of Pigs invasion of April 1961 by U.S. backed Cuban expatriates failed because U.S. president John F. Kennedy left the invaders stranded for fear of getting officially involved. The expected urban revolt collapsed when it became clear Brigade 2506 had been abandoned to its fate; and because the Soviet Union warned Castro, who ordered numerous executions and preemptive mass arrests of those thought likely to support a counter-revolution. [9], (Priestland, 2003). Church schools were confiscated, clergy were arrested, [10] and expelled en masse. In the rural central provinces the War Against the Bandits (circa 1959-1965) was suppressed by massed Castro militia, many executions and internal deportations of rebel supporters.

The Cuban Missile Crisis started with the Soviet Union installing nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962. In response, the United States put up a blockade in international waters. This is generally believed to be the closest the world has come to a nuclear war. The Soviet Union offered conditions to remove the missiles from Cuba, all of which were accepted by the United States government. The end of the crisis, in which President Kennedy could save face in front of the American public, is actually considered by some experts as a victory for the Soviet Union, as it could consolidate a communist stronghold 90 miles from US shores. The FBI has since then actively prosecuted and brought to trial many freedom fighters, and infiltrated most Cuban Patriotic Organizations in US soil and abroad.

In 1960's the two major communist countries were found at odds in the philosophical and political arena: The Soviet Union and China. In Cuba, Fidel Castro aligned with the Soviet Union, while Ernesto Guevara declared himself pro-Chinese. This marked the breaking point between the two men, which eventually led to Guevara's death in Bolivia, mainly because of the lack of support from Castro.

Between 1962 and the early 1970s, it has been known that Cuba sent trained guerillas to numerous South and Central American nations to aid in ongoing socialist revolutions. It was in Bolivia that Che Guevara, a major proponent of the socialist revolution, was killed after leading a rebellion in the jungles of Bolivia. Not only did Cuba aid in numerous South and Central American rebellions, but also in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the African continent. Che Guevara is known to have led the Cubans in the rebellion in the DRC, formerly known as Zaire. Within Cuba, Che is held as a hero of the socialist movement, but only since the mid 1980s, when the launch of the 'Era of Rectification' saw his ideas being re-asserted as Cuba distanced itself from Gorbachev's USSR.

After this, the United States never openly threatened Cuba again, but was said to engage in absurdly elaborate covert activities to assassinate Castro, namely The Cuban Project. Castro and the US dueled in Cold War actions as is described in much insider detail by Henry Kissinger in his book Years of Renewal. CIA-funded Castro opponents operating from Venezuela allegedly masterminded a notorious 1976 terrorist attack on Cubana Flight 455 in which 73 died. After years of research on the topic, and after the acquittals of several trials on those accused, there is a strong suspicion that the attack was self-inflicted to be used as a propaganda tool against the United States and to discredit Cuban freedom-fighters.

Cuba [11] and the US have also engaged in continuing acts of espionage against one another [12], [13]. It is believed by some[14] [15] although disputed by others [16], that the Cuban government, now allied with its Venezuelan counterpart, continues "destabilization" activities efforts supporting radical and violent Marxist groups in the U.S. and Latin America [17], [18]. [19].

After two decades of government without elections, repetitive failures of economic experiments, lack of freedom and respect for basic human rights made discontent among Cuban population to grow. In April 1980 over 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian embassy in Havana seeking political asylum. In response to this, Castro allowed anyone who desired to leave the country to do so through the port of Mariel. Under the Mariel boatlift, over 125,000 Cubans migrated to the United States. Eventually the United States stopped the flow of vessels and Cuba ended the uncontrolled exodus.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 dealt Cuba a giant economic blow. This led to another unregulated exodus of asylum seekers to the United States in 1994, which was slowed to a trickle of a few thousand a year by the U.S.-Cuban accords. Now it is increasing again although at a far slower rate than before [20]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Cuba
The courtyard of one of the free museums in Havana, the 'Casa de Simón Bolívar'

Cuban culture is much influenced by the fact that it is a melting pot of cultures, mostly from Spain and Africa. It has produced more than its fair share of literature, including the output of non-Cubans Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway. One should also note Graham Greene's, well known 1958 novel "Our Man in Havana" which strangely predicts the Cuban Missile Crisis four years before it happened (see Cuba/Printed sources)

Present State of Cuban Literature

Cuban authors continue to produce large amounts of government-supported printed and electronic work inside the island [21]. However, the present Cuban constitution states that all print and electronic media are inalienably state property"[22] The Cuban government also funds a large number of booths at book fairs in Latin America. A good number of university presses in the United States continually present scholarly volumes on various Cuban topics. Authors both for and against the present Cuban government present their views in the U.S. Cuba/Printed sources. Amazon.com (run by Jeff Bezos, who was raised by a Cuban family) currently lists 6,026 titles dealing with Cuba; Barnesandnoble.com lists 3,126. Borders book stores carry 1,991 titles on Cuba in stock..

Sampling of famous Cuban poetry, music, literature and art

  • Arenas, Reinaldo 1943-1990 openly gay poet, novelist and playwright. He was the winner of major prizes from UNEAC (The Union of Cuban Writers and Artists) in 1965 and 1966. While originally sympathetic to the 1959 revolution, his works demonstrate his growing criticism of the revolution’s repression of homosexuals and artists. His five volume work, the Pentagonia is subtitled a "secret history" of post-revolutionary Cuba. [23]
  • de Balboa y Troya de Quesada, Silvestre (1563-1649) 1608 Espejo de Paciencia. [24]. First known Cuban narrative poem deals with the killing of an attacking pirate by the people of Bayamo
  • Cabrera, Lydia. Anaforuana: ritual y símbolos de la iniciación en la sociedad secreta Abakuá. Madrid, Ediciones C.R., 1975. Her many works reflect the Black experience in Cuba [25].
  • Gómez de Avellaneda, Gertrudis (1814-1873) Her large body of excellent work includes the anti-slavery novel Dos mugeres (1842) and the play Baltasar (1858) [26]
  • Lecuona, Ernesto (1895-1962) First major composition, Malaguena, Roxy Theatre in New York 1927. [27], [28].
  • Menocal, Armando (1863-1941) Cuban painter his works, often displayed in Cuban public buildings, illustrate scenes of the Cuban War of Independence include La Muerte de Maceo (the death of Antonio Maceo) and have been subject to ownership dispute [29] [30] [31] [32]
  • Napoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (born 1829; believed killed by Spanish authorities in 1862) Selected work in Cucalambe (Decimas Cubanas): Seleccion De Rumores Del Hormigo. Ediciones Universal. 1999 ISBN 0897298780 An example of Siboneyista poetry, a 19th Century resistance movement which expressed its, then illegal, wish to be free of Spain couched as Siboney, one of the Neo-Taíno nations poetry and narrations.
  • Simons, Moisés 1928 El Manisero (the Peanut Vendor) An extremely popular song with complex poly-rhythms. The author was a Jewish immigrant to Cuba. In the Cuban vernacular to "cantar el manisero" to sing this song is to die. The Peanut Vendor inspired classically trained Joseph Norman Henderson, author of Cuban Pete, to change his name to Jose Norman [33] and dedicate his work to music from the island [34] [35] [36] [37]
  • Valdes, Zoe 1999 I Gave You All I Had. Arcade Publishing; 1st English-language edition. ISBN 1559704772 Book is part of a second wave of literature written by exiles who escaped Cuba in the latter part of the Castro years
  • Valdéz, Gabriel de la Concepción (Plácido) 1809-1844 (executed) Major, most well known poem and last poem Plegaria a Dios. [38], [39] His poetry, was often considered subversive and anti-slavery by the Spanish authorities
  • Villaverde, Cirilo 1882 (New translation 2005 by Sibylle Fischer and Helen Lane) Cecilia Valdes or El Angel Hill. Oxford University Press, USA ISBN 0195143957 Deals with sexual mores and the traditions of mistresses during the Spanish colonial period, with many historic details, including the execution of Narciso Lopez. The author was first condemned to death for conspiring for independence against Spain [40]; after his sentence was commuted to ten years he escaped [41].

Compendia of Cuban Literature

  • García, Calixto 1973 El Negro en la Narrativa Cubana. PhD. Thesis. The City University of New York. UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan [42] This Calixto García Iñiguez, was grandson of Calixto Garcia and was very familiar with the political and ethnic scene of Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s especially in Oriente Province.
  • Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944

Cuban music

Main article: Music of Cuba

Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The "central form" of this music is Son, which has been the basis of many other musical styles like salsa and mambo and a slower derivation of mambo, the cha-cha-cha. The Tres was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional Cuban instruments are of African and/or Neo-Taíno nations, multination indigenous origins such as the maracas, güiro, marímba and various wooden drums such as the mayohuacan (Zayas y Alfonso, 1914) Alfredo Zayas. Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has also won international thanks to composers like Ernesto Lecuona.

Religion

Main article: [[:Santería, Palo Monte, and Catholicism]]

The religious landscape of Cuba is strongly marked by syncretisms of various kinds, the majority of which include elements of Roman Catholicism. The various religious beliefs in Cuba are by no means exclusive, and one can easily be a follower of several religious currents at the same time, as well as being a member of the communist party. Pentecostalism is also growing rapidly, and the Assemblies of God alone claims a membership of over 100,000 people. However, reports of arrests and harassment of protestant clergy were reported recently [43].

Cuba has small but vibrant Jewish, Muslim and Bahá'í populations. Havana still has three active synagogues and one mosque. In the 1960s about 8,000 Jews left for Miami [44]. Around 1999 over several years almost 400 Cuban Jews, from a population once numbering about ten thousand [45],[46], left for Israel [47].

On 6 January the Epiphany (known as the Día de los Reyes Magos which in English translates "Day of the Kings") is celebrated to commemorate the day that the Three Wise Men came to visit Jesus according to the Gospels. As in most Spanish American countries as well as Spain, this day is celebrated in conjunction with, or sometimes instead of Christmas Day.

Important religious festivals include various days dedicated to the saints such as the "Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre" (the Virgin of Cobre, Cuba's patron saint, syncretised with Santería's Ochún) on September 8, and San Lázaro (Lazarus) (syncretised with Babalu Ayé), on December 17.

Society

Education

Main article: Education in Cuba

The University of Havana, Cuba's oldest university, was founded in 1721; prior to 1959 there were other official universities including : Universidad de Oriente (founded in 1947) and Universidad Central de Las Villas (founded in 1857); private universities included: Universidad Católica de Santo Tomás de Villanueva (founded in 1946); Universidad Masónica, and the Universidad de la Salle in Nuevo Vedado. In 1961 private schools and universities were nationalized (without payment), [48], [49]. Historically, Cuba has had some of the highest rates of education and literacy in Latin America, before and after the revolution [50]. Yet, before the revolution, the illiteracy was at 23.6 percent (50 percent in rural areas). Due to a massive campaign coordinated by the government but executed by the population, illiteracy was eradicated a few years after the Cuban revolution. It is not clear whether this Cuban government data includes that segment of the population those mental abilities are handicapped.

In a 1998 study by UNESCO [51], and as explained by Fidel Castro, Havana, on September 16, 2002 [52] Cuban education progress is excellent. Cuban third and fourth graders were reportedly better educated in basic language and mathematics skills than children in other Latin American countries that took part in the study, with the "test achievement of the lower half of students in Cuba is significantly better than the test achievement of the upper half of students in the countries that (fell) immediately behind Cuba" in the study group [53]. [54]. UNESCO data is reported as “estimates compiled from national population censuses and household surveys and updated to 2005” [55]. Cuba’s literacy rates by this criteria at 15 to 24 years of age (both male and female) is 100% [56].

Not all are so sanguine about Cuban education, and lacunae in curriculum at all levels of education are common (Orro Fernandez, 2004)Cuba/Printed sources. However, discipline is excellent and all students regardless of age and gender wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level.

Public health

Main article: Public health in Cuba
WHO health statistics for Cuba
Source: WHO country page on Cuba
Life expectancy at birth m/f: 75.0/79.0 (years)
Healthy life expectancy at birth m/f: 67.1/69.5 (years)
Child mortality m/f: 8/6 (per 1000)
Adult mortality m/f: 137/87 (per 1000)
Total health expenditure per capita: $236
Total health expenditure as % of GDP: 7.5

Fidel Castro has long made the promise of free, universal health care an important part of the case for his government. Cuba's healthcare system is widely regarded as one of the best in the world; however WHO data cited here comes directly from national health authorities of each country [57]. Thus, there are some who do not trust this data [58] [59].

History

Cuban traditional medicine has existed since before the Spanish conquest, these high status practitioners were called Bohiques (e.g. Zayas, 1914). Chinese medicine was practiced in Cuba, the most famous was a 19th century doctor Cham Bom Biam “El Medico Chino” [60]. Then it was said of those who were hopelessly terminal “no le salve ni el medico chino.” In Cuba, the Spanish tradition of medicine, was inherited from the Moors who had access to ancient Greek and Roman traditions rescued duringthe destruction of the ancient Egyptian Library of Alexandria. Dr Chanca of Seville was Columbus’s own doctor [61]. This tradition continued in Cuba. Modern Western Medicine has been practiced in Cuba by formally trained doctors since at least the beginning of the 19th Century [62]Cuba has had world class doctors for centuries such as Carlos Finlay, who determined how yellow fever was spread. Under the direction of Walter Reed, James Carroll, and Aristides Agramonte [63] [64] during the 1898-1902 US presence in Cuba with much heroic sacrifice such as that of Clara Louise Maas [65] and surgeon Jesse W. Lazear [66]yellow fever was essentially eliminated. The massive Havana hospital, "Calixto Garcia" as well as 72 others were operating well before 1959. [67], [68] However, like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care has suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies. Support from the Venezuelan government of Hugo Chávez has alleviated some of those problems.

Present

Today, according to Cuban government statistics, Cuba has over 71,000 doctors [69], with 20,000 health workers in Venezuela, and 5,000 more spread around the world in over 60 additional countries, as it views such missions an important part of its foreign policy [70]. They offer medical services to 85,154,748 people; 34,700,000 in Latin America and the Caribbean and 50,400,000 in Africa and Asia.

Cuba has sent doctors to underdeveloped nations and educated foreign doctors since the early 1960s. It dispatched physicians to help Nicaragua and Peru, then hostile to Cuba, recover from earthquakes. [71]

Cuban doctors played a vital role in the health-care system of Sri Lanka in the 1980s, particularly in the war-torn North-east province, when a crisis in that country's education system limited the number of doctors coming out of universities.

Cuba has also given treatment on the island to more than 14,000 children and 4,000 adults damaged by radiation in Chernobyl, which is actually more than the rest of the world combined has done for the victims during that catastrophe.

During the UN's general assembly in 2000, Fidel Castro offered the United Nations 6,000 doctors for service in the third world.

"But one of Castro's most respected achievements is the establishment of a comprehensive health system producing one doctor for every 170 people, compared to 188 in the US and 250 in the UK. Teams of Cuban doctors assess applicants for eye surgery before sending patients to Havana on special flights from ten Caribbean countries and more than 15 Latin American nations. On August 20, Cuba achieved what is almost certainly a world record - performing 1,648 eye operations at 20 hospitals in a single day."

"Since July 25, more than 3,000 people from ten Caribbean countries have had eye operations in Cuba funded by oil-rich Venezuela. Other patients from Central and South America bring the total to 100,000 free eye operations this year." [72]

Like a number of countries, Cuba has developed a hospital system for health tourists, taking advantage of a combination of low labor costs, an educated work force, and the ability of such tourists to pay in much desired hard currency for their care.

The country is now able to operate and provide services in all branches of ophthalmology to hundreds of thousands of patients. As part of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (ALBA, an alternative to the Free Trade Area of the Americas), Cuba promises that one hundred thousand Venezuelans will receive these services this year, and until July 2005, 25,024 patients from said country, and a similar number of Cubans will have been operated on [73]. 15,000 citizens of the Caribbean community will receive this form of medical care between the second half of June 2005 and June 2006. Venezuela and Cuba have offered to provide another 100,000 Latin Americans with this service within the same period. Cuba has been able to reduce reported infant mortality to zero in certain remote rural areas.[74].

The Cuban American National Foundation claims that Cuba masks the truth behind the Cuban health care system. They argue that real Cuban healthcare is abysmal and that what is shown to non-Cuban foreigners is a healthcare system unavailable to the average Cuban.[75]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Cuba
Cuba's population in thousands(1961-2003)

According to the CIA's World Factbook, Cuba is 51% mulatto (mixed white and black), 37% white, 11% black, and 1% Chinese.

The Chinese population in Cuba derives mostly from laborers who arrived in the 19th century to build railroads and work in mines. Most stayed in Cuba, as they could not afford a return passage to China. Historical papers show that, while considered inferior to Cubans of European descent, they were considered superior to blacks due to their paler skin.

In Cuba there is relatively little racial tension. Nevertheless, the sizeable Jamaican population in Santiago de Cuba is frequently stereotyped as lazy. Also, lighter skinned people often have more prestigious jobs (although in socialist Cuba this does not translate to a high difference in income). The melting pot is expressed not only in a racial sense, but also in religion (see below) and the music of Cuba. There is internal illegal immigration to Havana seeking greater opportunities, these internal illegals are known as "palestinos." Cuba also shelters a population of non-Cubans of unknown size. This population includes defectors from the US e.g. Phillip Agee [76] and foreign activists of various radical causes [77]. In addition there are a several thousand number of North African teen and pre-teen refugees undergoing military training [78].

Cuba has a low birth rate. The fertility rate of 1.66 children per woman[79] is the lowest of any country in the western hemisphere (tied with Canada and Barbados). A contributing cause is Cuba's policy of abortion on demand. Cuba has a high abortion rate of 77.7 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 in 1996, 3rd highest in the world among 55 countries whose abortion rate was available to be compiled in a 1999 UN study. [80] Selective termination of high-risk pregnancies is one factor contributing to the low official infant mortality rate in Cuba of 5.8 per thousand births. (State of the World's Children 2005) However, this high abortion rate and very low birth rate, reminiscent of former Communist Eastern Europe and Russia, threatens to cause the population to shrink significantly in the coming decades, although this has not happened yet due to relatively small numbers of elderly.

Immigration and emigration have had noticeable changes in the demographic profile of Cuba during the 20th century. Between 1900 and 1930 close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain. Cuba has historically been more heavily European than other Caribbean islands, and in 1950 was said to have a 75% white majority. Since 1959, over a million Cubans have left the island, primarily to Miami, Florida where a vocal, well educated and economically very successful anti-Castro community exists (Cuban-American lobby). [81] The emigration that occurred immediately after the Cuban Revolution was primarily of the upper and middle classes that were predominantly white, thus contributing to a demographic shift along with changes in birth rates among the various ethnic groups. After the chaos that accompanied the Mariel boatlift, Cuba and the United States (commonly called the 1994 Clinton-Castro accords [82]) have agreed to limit emigration to the United States. Under this, the United States grants a specific number of visas to those wishing to emigrate (20,000 since 1994) while those Cubans picked up at sea trying to emigrate without a visa are returned to Cuba. However, U.S. law [83] grants U.S. residency to any Cuban who arrives on U.S. soil without a visa, thus there is still an unofficial exodus [84]; these escapes are often daring and most ingenious e.g. [85] [86]. The number of Cubans who leave by sea is still about 2,000 a year but the trend is upward at present [87] [88]. In 2005 an additional 7,610 Cuban emigrants from Cuba entered through the "southern border in the fiscal year that ended Sept. 30" [89] “Unlike most countries, Cuba requires its citizens to obtain exit permits when leaving the country;” there are 533 Cubans with valid US visas not allowed to leave [90]. Escapes from Cuba are once again enforced by lethal gunfire [91].

Government and politics

Revolution Square: José Martí Monument designed Enrique Luis Varela, sculpture by Juan José Sicre and finished in 1958. [1]
Main article: [[:Politics of Cuba and Elections in Cuba]]

The Cuban constitution states that, "the Communist Party of Cuba...is the superior guiding force of society and the state." Members are selected by the party in a thorough process that includes interviews with co-workers and neighbors. Those selected are considered model citizens and strong supporters of the revolution. It makes recommendations concerning the future development of the revolution, and it criticizes tendencies it considers counterrevolutionary. It has a relatively large influence in Cuba, but its authority is "moral", not on any legal authority. The Communist Party of Cuba is the sole legal political party, and no other party is legally allowed to exist. In later years independent candidates have been nominally allowed to participate.

Elections are held by secret ballot and everyone age 16 or older can vote. Voters nominate candidates for the municipal assemblies and are then placed before the voters who choose among 2-8 candidates. Candidates for the National Assembly are nominated by municipal assemblies with one candidate for each seat and put to an approval vote where voters may approve all, some or none of the candidates (source: "Democracy in Cuba and the 1997-1998 Elections" by Arnold August [92]).

Legislative power is nominally in the hands of the National Assembly of People’s Power. However, save for two sessions a year, power is exercised by the 31 member Council of State which is elected by the National Assembly from itself.

Executive authority is formally vested in the Council of Ministers, a large cabinet comprised of 8 members of the Council of State, the heads of the national ministries, and other persons. A smaller Executive Committee consisting of the more important members of the Council of Ministers oversees normal business.

Fidel Castro has been the head of government since 1959, first as prime minister and, after the abolition of that office with the adoption of the 1976 Constitution, as President of the Council of State, which also serves as head of state. He is also First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, and since 1976 a member of the National Assembly from the municipality of Santiago de Cuba. (The 1976 Constitution and its 1992 revision require that the President of the Council of State be a member of the National Assembly).

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Cuba

Presently, human rights organizations primarily criticise the Cuban government for the denial of basic rights to free expression, association, assembly, movement, and a fair trial. Though recently, the dissident Belkis Ferro has claimed torture [93].

Historically, in 1967[94] [95], the Cuban Government was accused of numerous human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extra-judicial executions. Opponents of the Cuban government argue that many thousands of deaths (e.g. 70,000), unjustified by western democratic standards. have occurred since the revolution [96] [97].

The Cuban Government placed a moratorium on capital punishment in 2001, making an exception for perpetrators of an armed hijacking 2 years later. However, since Fidel Castro's government, in power for the last 47 years, denies access to many humanitarian organizations, it is difficult to determine exact numbers, though it is believed that no formal executions have occurred since April 2003.

Groups like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have issued reports about prisoners of conscience. [98][99] Presently, according to Human Rights Watch, 306 prisoners are believed to be incarcerated for political reasons. According to Amnesty International, there are currently 72 prisoners of conscience in Cuba with the most recent being committed on July 22, 2005. Cuba remains one of the few countries in the world, and the only one in the Western Hemisphere, to deny the International Committee of the Red Cross access to its prisons. [100]

All Cuban workers have the right to join a trade union, and although membership of a union is voluntary ninety eight per cent of the active population belong to one of the 19 trade unions in Cuba. Cuban law permits workers to freely form trade union organisations and does not require such organisations to register with any state agency in order to function or to acquire legality. Unions are self financed from monthly dues, which are paid by members to their local union official, and they receive no subsidies from the state. Elections of union officers at the workplace are open and competitive. Different political views are found within each of the unions. An official worker's central trade union organisation, The Worker's Central of Cuba (Central de Trabajadores de Cuba, CTC) is routinely consulted by central government when new laws are being considered. [101] Not all accept this view of Cuban labor organizations and see them as a mere arm of the state (Alba,1968) Cuba/Printed sources. Fidel Castro is the titular head of the CTC; many Communist party leaders have been appointed to CTC positions. The CTC is the only legal union, professional association or trade association in Cuba; all legal labor organizations are its parts.

The Human Rights Watch overview of Cuba[102] also identifies effects of U.S. policies on human rights in Cuba:

"The U.S. economic embargo on Cuba, in effect for more than four decades, continues to impose indiscriminate hardship on the Cuban people and to block travel to the island. ...the new travel policies undermine the freedom of movement of hundreds of thousands of Cubans and Cuban Americans, and inflict profound harm on Cuban families. "

Supporters of the Cuban government will often compare the human rights record to the authoritarian rule under the previous U.S. backed regime of Fulgencio Batista, and they argue that the overall current situation would have been far better if not for U.S. sanctions.

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Cuba

Fourteen provinces and one special municipality (the Isla de la Juventud) now comprise Cuba. These in turn were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided.

1 Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth)
2 Pinar del Río 9 Ciego de Ávila
3 La Habana (Havana) 10 Camagüey
4 Ciudad de la Habana (Havana City) 11 Las Tunas
5 Matanzas 12 Granma
6 Cienfuegos 13 Holguín
7 Villa Clara 14 Santiago de Cuba
8 Sancti Spíritus 15 Guantánamo

Geography

Main article: Geography of Cuba
Map of Cuba

Geologically Cuba was once in the Pacific, and crossing between North and South America before they were joined, "crashed" into what is now Florida [103]. Cuba, 65 million years ago, also received part of the impact of Chicxulub Crater with tsunami kilometers high reaching at least 500 kilometres (300 mi) away to the middle provinces [104], [105] and beyond. The elongated island (aprox. 760 miles or 1,220 km long) of Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean and is bounded to the north by the Straits of Florida and the greater North Atlantic Ocean, to the northwest by the Gulf of Mexico, to the west by the Yucatan Channel, to the south by the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Windward Passage. The Republic comprises the entire island, including many outlying islands such as the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth), previously known as the Isla de los Pinos (Isle of Pines). The Cayman Islands mainly coral reefs covering submerged ice age peaks of the Sierra Maestra range [106]) and Jamaica which is geologically related to Central America are south of eastern Cuba. Guantánamo Bay, is a naval base that has been leased by the United States since 1903, a lease that has been contested since 1960 by Castro.

The main island is the world's 16th largest. The island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains, with more rugged hills and mountains primarily in the southeast and the highest point is the Pico Real del Turquino at 2,005 metres (6,578 ft). The local climate is tropical, though moderated by trade winds. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October.

Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. Some of the well-known smaller towns are Baracoa which was the first Spanish settlement on Cuba, as well as Trinidad and Bayamo.

  • Rojas-Consuegra, R., M. A. Iturralde-Vinent, C. Díaz-Otero y D. García-Delgado (2005). "Significación paleogeográfica de la brecha basal del Límite K/T en Loma Dos Hermanas (Loma Capiro), en Santa Clara, provincia de Villa Clara. I Convención Cubana de Ciencias de la Tierra". GEOCIENCIAS. 8 (6): 1–9. ISBN 959-7117-03-7.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Economy

Main article: Economy of Cuba

Cuba's communist economy is primarily based on state ownership — exceptions to this include microscale private enterprises. Economic activity is thereby maintained largely by government spending. Such federal spending in 2005 budgeted 68% towards education, healthcare, social security, cultural programs, sports, and scientific research.[1] According to Cuban statistics, during the first half of the year the Cuban economy grew by 7.3%, with 9% growth expected by the end of the year.[2]

According to the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal, the Cuban government consumes nearly 35% of the GDP, employs 73% of the labor force, and investment of capital has large restrictions including required apporval by the government. The Cuban government sets most prices and rations goods to citizens, has decreased inflation by restraining its monetary policy, but "State salaries average $15 to $20 per month in Cuban pesos... Cuba is chronically dependent on credit accounts that rotate from country to country. Typical imports are food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. Exports include nickel, cigars, and state-sponsored labor, for which the government charges many times what it pays in state salaries. Lacking investment, Cuba's sugar industry is no longer viable"[[107]]

Since Cuba became a communist country the Ministerio de Recuperación de Bienes Malversados (Ministry of recovery of stolen goods), much of Cuban art and libraries formerly held by more prosperous Cubans now in exile has been confiscated by the state [108]. This art work which has increased greatly in value [109] [110] can now be sold abroad to raise hard currency for the needs of the Cuban government.

Since the fall of Cuba's many trading partners, the island has focused on urban communal farms. "Last year alone we produced 27 kilograms of vegetables per square metre. When we first started this farm three years ago it stood at 18 kilograms. And we expect this year's harvest to yield no less than 30 kilograms. That's an increase of around 30% year on year.", says Senora Hernandes, in charge of one of hundreds of small urban farms dotted around Havana. "A recent report by the American agency for sustainable farming, Food First, said annual production of fruit and vegetables is growing at 250% a year." [111]. While “Locally grown fruit and vegetables can significantly augment a country’s commercial production and imports, but will not, however, provide long-run food and agricultural solutions.” (Kost, 2004)Cuba/Printed sources. The reason for this is that the first limiting factor for production is nitrogen. While green “manures” (Ramos, et al. 2001), endophytic, microrhizzal and other associated organisms (Loiret et al. 2004; Tejera et al, 2006), and animal manures (Travieso, 2006)Cuba/Printed sources can supplement this to some extent this circumstance will require wider plantings of the type required before inorganic fertilizers became widely available (Ortiz, 1995)

A Cuban state hotel, from 30 € per night

Historically, sugar, tobacco and (later) nickel were the main sources of foreign trade income for Cuba. In the 19th Century, until the richer ores of Chile were found, it was common to export some of Cuba's long mined copper ore to Wales History of Swansea and England [112]. But in the 1990s tourism saw an explosive growth.

Until recently Cubans also receive an estimated $850 million annually from Cubans in the U.S. who send money to relatives or friends. However, State Security is reportedly able to confiscate this money from individuals when it deems that appropriate [113]. In 1993 the U.S. dollar was made legal tender (the country operated under a dual-currency system); this arrangement was, however, revoked on 25 October 2004. At that time, use of the dollar in business was officially banned, and a 10% surcharge was introduced for the conversion of dollars (in cash) to convertible pesos, the island's new official currency. Other currencies, including the euro, were not affected. See details at the Ludwig Van Mises Institute.

The Cuban economy was hit hard in the early 1990s following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Comecon economic bloc, with which it had traded predominantly. For several decades, Cuba received what was effectively a Soviet subsidy, whereby Cuba provided the Soviet Union with sugar and the Soviets provided Cuba with petroleum at below market prices. In response, Cuba opened up to tourism, which is now a major source of income. Since 2003, both tourism levels and nickel prices increased. One other factor in the proclaimed recovery of the Cuban economy were the remittances from Cuban-Americans, now much diminished, which for a while constituted a large part of the external inputs into the Cuban Economy.

Cuba currently trades with almost every nation in the world, albeit with restrictions from the U.S. embargo. Trade with the United States is restricted to cash-only transactions for food and medicine. Any company that deals with Cuba risks problems dealing with the United States, so internationally operating companies may be forced to choose between Cuba and the United States, which is a far larger market. This extraterritorial U.S. legislation is considered highly controversial, and the U.S. embargo was condemned for the 13th time in 2004 by the General Assembly of the United Nations, by 179 countries (out of 183 voting). The main current trading partners of Cuba are: Venezuela, China, Spain, Canada and, the Netherlands.

Cuba owes approximately $5.4 billion in foreign debt to Paris Club nations such as France, Japan and Germany. Cuba also has other sources of debt including approximately $25 billion in debt disputed with Russia dating from the era of the Soviet Union. [114] The lack of domestic sources of capital financing, an inherent by-product of its socialist economic system, makes Cuba's debt extremely vulnerable to disruptions in trade.

Although U.S. citizens are not officially banned from travelling to Cuba, they are generally prohibited from spending money there (exceptions are made for students studying in Cuba, diplomats, certain business people, and people with family members in Cuba), which amounts to a de facto travel ban, as Cuba requires that foreign visitors spend a minimum of three nights in a hotel; moreover, the only direct flights from the United States are strictly for those with family members in Cuba, or others with licences from OFAC. Nevertheless, U.S. citizens can visit Cuba by travelling through other countries (like Mexico, Canada or the Bahamas) because Cuban immigration does not stamp the passports (the visum is a separate leaflet). However, U.S. citizens are liable to fines and imprisonment if discovered and prosecuted by the U.S. government. Several Americans have been caught by US pre-clearance agents and fined when getting off flights in Toronto, Montreal and Nassau, so Cuban travel agents advise Americans to avoid these routes.

Although struggling with its economy since the fall of the Soviet Union, Cuba has seen substantial improvements since the early 1990s. The economy has been helped in recent years by strong tourism, international investment in nickel production and oil exploration as well as beneficial oil purchases from Venezuela, in exchange for medical services.

A major problem is damage from hurricanes. All Caribbean islands suffer from hurricanes and the Cuban government uses this as an argument to urge the islands to cooperate, promoting an agreement of mutual self-insurance, so that if one island gets hit, the other islands will help it out. He says that if the United States get hit, the economy of the rest of the country will take the blow, but if a Caribbean island gets hit, that may devastate the entire economy.

Over 7,300 homes have been completed in 2005, thus it is expected (estimating five people per residence) that in about three hundred years all housing destroyed in the hurricanes will be replaced. Plans to repair the majority of homes partially affected by Hurricane Dennis and others [115] are said underway. The Cuban government predicts that no less than 10,000 of the homes destroyed will be built again as new and the plans to finish and construct new homes to cover the most urgent requirements will continue, up to at least 30,000 additional housing.

Cuba is notable for its national organic agriculture initiative. However, it is wise to keep in mind that Cuban government is said by some to be less than open about agricultural abuses [116]. In the early 1990s, post-Soviet Union, Cuba lost over 70% of agricultural chemical imports, over 50% of food imports, and an equally significant amount of oil. Its agricultural sector, built on a large-scale, mechanized, chemical-based model, was instantly crippled. By restructuring its agricultural industry, and focusing scientific efforts on organic solutions, Cuba managed to rapidly and successfully convert the country to entirely organic production. Currently, only organic agriculture is permitted by law, which while having the effect of reducing the need for imports, has also led to lower yields. Combined with the removal of marginal land from sugar farming, this led to a reduction in total sugar production of over 70% from around 7 millions tons anually in the late 1980s to around 3 million tons annually in the late 1990s [117] [118]; to 1.6 million tons in 2004 [119]. Today, Cuba is a leading nation in biotechnology, and Cuban expertise is exported to Iran [120]; however some claim that this relates to biowar potential [121]. More than 100 million USD are currently being invested in the pharmaceutical industry.

On a total population of 11 million, Cuba's government states that it has 250,000 educators, 67,500 medical doctors, and 34,000 physical education and sports professionals and technicians.[122]

Infrastructure

Cuban infrastructure is significant and includes: massive Spanish fortifications built in principal ports [123] (e.g. El Morro [124] castles in Havana (1589) and Santiago; Castillo San Salvador de la Punta [125]; (finished by 1630); La Fuerza[126] (finished 1577); San Carlos de La Cabaña the largest in the Americas; El Principe [127]; Atares [128] around Havana Bay) [129].

Railroads were first built in the late colonial period and finished in the first part of the 20th Century. Vital sanitation facilities were constructed in the US period. The Presidential Palace [130] was built between 1913 and 1919 under presidents Gómez y de Menocal, and designed by a group that included architect Rodolfo Maruri.

The Cuban Capitol was built on older foundations in 1926 during Gerardo Machado's presidency[131], the building contains the third largest indoor statue in the world; this is the statue of the Cuban Republic, which represents La Patria the motherland, which in the Latin American tradition is female. This statue was sculpted Angelo Zanelli, and the model was "habanera "Lily Válty [132] [133].

The central highway, which starts in Pinar del Rio and ends in the former province of Oriente, was also constructed during the Gerardo Machado administration. There are tunnels in Havana under the bay and under the Almendares River, and some highways in the old Oriente Province, Via Azul and Via Mulata, and Havana-Matanzas Via Blanca, all of which were completed in the second Fulgencio Batista period. The main road into Baracoa was completed in the 1960s, whilst in the since the late 1980s, causeways have been built out to neighbouring cays in order to open them up for tourist development. However, these causeways do not allow seawater to circulate freely and in consequence this has causud significant ecological damage. A complex network of massive dams [134] and complex semi-secret underground fortifications [135] were built in the present Fidel Castro period.

In addition there are significant numbers of historic buildings and reinforced concrete high rises built in the Republican period. Statues and other monuments dot the Island. Each construction has its own particular story that often relate to important events in the history of the island. For instance, some of the cobblestones that surround the Havana docks were brought in from Sweden, on the return trips of ships smuggling sugar into Britain during WWI.

See also

Template:Topics related to Cuba


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  1. ^ [138]
  2. ^ [139]
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