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Buddhism (Pāli Buddhadhamma or Sanskrit Buddhadharma) is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, who lived in the 5th century BCE. Buddhism spread throughout the ancient Indian sub-continent in the five centuries following his death, and propagated into Central, Southeast, and East Asia over the next two millennia. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions, Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and, with around 376 million followers, it is considered a major world religion. It has attracted many intellectual followers and supporters such as H.G.Wells and Albert Einstein who stated that 'Buddhism is the only religion able to cope with modern scientific needs'. Buddhism has been accepted by many as the religion that does not conflict with science.

File:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg
A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found in Sarnath, near Varanasi.
Part of a series on
Buddhism
History
Buddhist texts
Practices
Nirvāṇa
Traditions
Buddhism by country

Introduction

Center of a Garbhadhatu (sanskrit) or Taizo-kai' (jp.) - Mandala. Adibuddha Vairochana, surrounded by four further Adibuddhas (golden) and four Bodhisattvas (white)

Buddhism is a major spiritual movement, with an estimated 376 million followers worldwide. Accurate demographic data are difficult to acquire, however, because many Buddhists live in nations with oppressive governments, and because of the growing number of Buddhists in the West.

There is controversy among scholars of religion concerning whether Buddhism constitutes a religion or a Philosophical movement; these discussions closely follow the problem of "what is religion?" (see religious studies). Especially in the West, many people who are devoutly Buddhist also consider themselves to be Christian, Muslim, or Jewish, or as belonging to some other ideological tradition.

In general, the aim of Buddhist practice is to end all kinds of suffering in life. To achieve this state, adherents seek to purify and train the mind by following the Noble Eightfold Path, and eventually to gain true knowledge of reality and thus attain liberation (Nirvana).

Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness (ahimsa) and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (sila), meditative concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (prajñā).

The Buddha is considered to be a person who discovered the true nature of reality through years of study, investigation of the various religious practices of his time, and meditation. This discovery is called enlightenment. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words, and by leading a virtuous, moral life.

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (e.g., the devas, of which many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgment to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual. All supernatural beings, as living entities, are a part of the six-part reincarnation cycle.

Buddhism is categorized under the Shraman Tradition (Shramaṇa Paramparā) of Indian philosophy, rather than the Vedic Tradition (Vaidika Paramparā) that is followed by Orthodox Hinduism. Buddhism is called an Ārya Dharma (Aryan religion), meaning, a noble religious way of life.

Siddhartha Gautama

The Great Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India.
Main article: Gautama Buddha

According to the tradition, Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit सिद्धार्थ गौतम, pronounced "sιd-dhα:rthə gautəmə"; in Pāli, Siddhattha Gautama) was born in Lumbini. Lumbini is usually place in what is now southern Nepal but alternate locations have been suggested in the state of Orissa in India. Siddhārtha's father was Suddhodana, a leader of the Shakya people.

Traditions state that the Buddha's mother passed away at his birth or a few days later. The legend says that a seer predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the Four Passing Sights: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privilege, rank, caste, and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death.

Siddhārtha pursued the path of the yogi and meditated with two Brahmin hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness (dhyana), he was still not satisfied with the results. Gautama then began his training in the ascetic life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Gautama proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death to no profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing.

After discarding asceticism and concentrating on meditation, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree, he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment and became a Buddha.

The Buddha venerated by Indra and Brahma, Kanishka casket, dated to 127 CE, British Museum.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, Gautama Buddha traveled in the Gangetic Plain of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all—from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, including adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the sanghas, the community of monks and that of nuns, which continued to declaim his teaching after his death.

Doctrines

Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to all schools of Buddhism.

Dependent Origination

Main article: Pratitya-samutpada

The enlightenment (Bodhi) of the Buddha Gautama was simultaneously his liberation from suffering and his insight into the nature of reality. What the Buddha awakened to was the truth of dependent origination (Sanskrit: pratītya-samutpāda, Pali: paticca samuppada). Any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of rebirth (samsara) according to the law of karma and vipaka. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient (anicca), they have no real, independent identity (anatta) and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to ordinary minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty (sunya). Wise human beings, who see things as they are (yatha-bhuta-ñana-dassana), renounce attachment and clinging which cause suffering (dukkha), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: Ariya Atthangika Magga, Sanskrit: Arya Ashtanga Marg). This teaching is called the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: catvāri-ārya-satyāni; Pali: cattari ariya saccani).

  1. Dukkha: All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
  2. Samudaya: There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (tanha) rooted in ignorance (avidya).
  3. Nirodha: There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
  4. Magga: There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities.

The Noble Eightfold Path

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path
Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of:

  1. Right Understanding - (samyag-dRSTi, sammaa-diTTi)
  2. Right Thought - 〈samyak-saMkalpa, sammaa-saGkalpa〉
  3. Right Speech - (samyag-vaac, sammaa-vaacaa)
  4. Right Conduct - (samyak-kalmaanta, sammaa-kammanta)
  5. Right Livelihood - (samyag-aajiiva, sammaa-aajiiva)
  6. Right Effort - (samyag-vyaayaama, sammaa-vaayaama)
  7. Right Mindfulness - (samyak-smrTi, sammaa-sati)
  8. Right Concentration - (samyak-samaadhi, sammaa-samaadhi)

There are numbers of way to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Noble Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another while others see it as the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise into Prajna/Panna (Wisdom), Sila (Virtuous Behaviour) and Samadhi (Concentration), some systemising it further as shown below:

Right Livelihood Right Speech
Right Understanding Right Conduct
Right Thought
Right Concentration Right Effort
Right Mindfulness

Middle Way

Main article: Middle way

The Middle Way or Middle Path is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also an another name for the Noble Eightfold Path.

"The middle way discovered by a Perfect One avoids both these extremes; it gives vision, it gives knowledge, and it leads to peace, to direct acquaintance, to discovery, to nibbana. And what is that middle way? It is simply the noble eightfold path, that is to say, right view, right intention; right speech, right action, right livelihood; right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. That is the middle way discovered by a Perfect One, which gives vision, which gives knowledge, and which leads to peace, to direct acquaintance, to discovery, to neverletgo." Gautama Buddha from the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.

Refuge in The Three Jewels

File:Buddha-Footprint.JPG
Footprint of the Buddha with the triratana, the symbolic depiction of the Three Jewels, and the Dharma wheel, 1st century CE, Gandhara.
Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels

Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking of refuge in the Three Jewels of Buddhism—the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha[1]—as the foundation of one's religious practice.

Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Dharma, that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Sangha, in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

Śila

Main articles: Śīla , Pancasila, and Vinaya

The Buddha statue Aukana, in Sri Lanka

In Sanskrit, śīla is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline," or ethics. It is one of the three practices and the second pāramitā: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. The requirements of śīla are codified in scriptures as vinaya, which set the code of conduct for monks and nuns. However, the actual content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures, and different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya.

The complete list of vinaya rules followed by a given order of monks or nuns is called the pratimoksha. Fully ordained monks and nuns of the Theravada school also observe a pratimoksha of 227 and 311 rules, respectively. For monks and nuns, the breaking of a code requires a penalty ranging from confession to community to expulsion from the Sangha for one's current lifetime.

Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five lay precepts (pancasila). The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but rather are promises to oneself: "I will ..."

  1. To refrain from harming living creatures (ahimsa).
  2. To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
  3. To refrain from sexual misconduct.
  4. To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
  5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy.

Meditation

Main article Buddhist meditation

Practice of meditation or dhyāna is essential to the cultivation of mindfulness and mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha and vipassana meditation. Samatha (tranquility or concentration) meditation starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to state of total concentration and tranquility. This state of mind is considered a prerequisite to the attainment of vipassana (insight). This dichotomy is also sometimes discussed as "stopping and seeing." In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassana meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to prajña (pure understanding) and jñana (knowledge) and thus can lead to nirvana.

There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.

Worldview of Buddhism

Buddhism and reality

Main article Reality in Buddhism

In Buddhism the perceived reality is considered unreal (according to the Buddha: "Mañjushri, dreams appear but do not exist. Similarly all things, too, appear but do not exist."...“They are illusory, like a mirage, a castle in the sky, the moon in water, a reflected image and an emanation.”[2])

There are very different interpretations of this in different Buddhist schools and traditions. For details see the main article Reality in Buddhism.

Buddhist texts

Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung
Main article: Buddhist texts

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some school venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of scripture is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

  • The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sangha of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
  • The Sutra Pitaka (Pāli: Sutta Pitaka), contains the actual discourses of the Buddha.
  • A third type containing commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings. In the Theravada school, as well as in several others, this division is called the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka).

Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held presided by a monk named Mahakasyapa. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings (sutras) and codify monastic rules (vinaya). Ananda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, these record was initally transmitted orally in form of chanting, and were committed in text in much later period. Both the sutras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The Theravada and other Nikaya schools believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravada canon, also known as the Pali Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the Mahayana sutras, are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nagas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations.

Buddhism after the Buddha

Main articles: History of Buddhism and Buddhist councils

During his life time, Buddha specifically refused to answer a number of questions. These are

1. Whether the world is eternal.
2. Whether the world is infinite.
3. Whether the body and the soul is one.
4. Whether the Buddha exists after death.

The Buddha, using an analogy of poisoned arrow, indicated to Malunkyaputta that such speculative questions were ultimately unprofitable. [3]


Early Buddhism

Main article: The Second Buddhist Council

The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha. The objective of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings (sutra) and codify monastic rules (vinaya): Ananda, Buddah's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya.

As Sangha gradually prolifirated over a century disputes arose within different Sangha. In 383 BCE, the second council was held to resolve the dispute. The account of the exact nature of the disputes differs according to Northern Mahayana tradition and Southern Theravada tradition. Mahayana tradition state that the diputes were about the state of enlightenment of Arahants while Theravada tradition state that the disputes were about vinaya. Whatever the nature of the dispute, the council result in the first schism (sanghbheda) resulting in Sthaviravada, "School of the Elders", (Sthaviras-Elders in Sanskrit, Theravada in Pali) and Mahasanghika (from Sanskrit, “great order of monks”). A series of further disputes resulted in additional divisions.

Early Buddhist sects

File:AshokaMap2.gif
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE).
Main articles Early Buddhist schools and Ashoka

These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikaya (sects or factions) in modern Theravada tradition and Hinayana (lesser vehicle) sects in Mahayana tradition. And each sects developed different collections of commentaries (Abhidharma), and for this reason, referred as Abhidharma Buddhism by some accademics.

Buddhism still prolifilated slowly in India until Mauryan king Ashoka began actively supporting it. His efforts at promotion led to the construction of Buddhist religious sites (stupa ) and to missionary efforts that spread the faith into neighboring lands.

King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE. The objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism, and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout the known world. Tipitaka (in Pali. Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the "three baskets") was composed comprising monastic code (vinaya), discourse of Buddha (stupa) and commentaries (abhidharma).

This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the Edicts of Ashoka, emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism particularly in the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean. This led to the development of Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. It is also speculated that Buddhism incorporated influences "from popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti) and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies which filtered into India from the northwest" (Lowenstein, 1996).

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism

Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st–10th century CE.
Main article: Mahayana

Mahayana as a distinct movement began around the 1st century BCE in the area around Kushan Empire (now area within Pakistan) before it was transmitted in a highly evolved form to China and Tibet. On one side, Mahayana was a laity movement focused around stupa devoption. Pictures within the wall of stupa representing the story of Buddah and his previous reincarnation as bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the mass. The devotion to trancendent all precent Buddah and bodisattva which is distinct from Sangha become increasingly emphasised. Sangha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in term of Abhidharma and vinaya practice. This led to widening distance between laity and Sangha. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting wide range influence from various sects. Still, in term of Abbhidharma, Sarvastivadin (who had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka which were both dominant in Kushan Empire seems to have had major influence. In term of vinaya practice, Mahasamghaka branch of sects which emphaised greater openeness might played dominant role. Monks representing different theological orientation could live in the same Sangha as long as they practice the same vinaya. Moreover, those who believe that Mahayana sutras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffeling of sutras according to various Abbhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahayana sutras possible.

Around 100 AD, the Kushan emperor Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravada line of buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original Tipitaka in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, Lotus Sutra, early version of Heart Sutra and Amitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the mass (hence Mahayana-greater vehicle) and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody trancendent buddha-nature who strive to achive such goal. The new scriptures were rewritten in the classical language of Sanskrit. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourish and spread in the East from India to South-East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan in 538 CE.

Emergence of the Vajrayana

Wheel of Life, Bhutan. In the Indian Mahayana Buddhism scriptural language of Sanskrit, the Wheel of Life is called Bhavachakra.
Main article: Vajrayana

There are differing views as to just when tantric practice started, some claiming that it began in Udyana - the modern day Swat valley in Pakistan, while others say that it began in southern India. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Shakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esotoric teachings outside the teacher/disciple relationship, they were written down generally long after the Buddhas other teachings, known as sutras. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century.

Nalanda University in northern India became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory, although it is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early Tantric movement. India would continue as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up through the 11th century.

A vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) actually stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nalanda teachers and traditions. Other forms of Buddhism, like the Mahayana followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, found their genesis within the walls of the ancient university. Theravada, the other main school of Buddhism, followed in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and elsewhere, and later the mystic Theravada schools also developed here.

After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th–6th century). Mahayana centers of learning were established, especially at Nalanda in north-eastern India, which was to become the largest and most influential Buddhist university for many centuries, with famous teachers such as Nagarjuna who founded Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism in opposition to Sarvastivada line of thought. However, Sarvastivada teaching were later incorporated into Yogacara school founded by Vasubandhu and Asanga. The nature of nirvana and Buddah nature continue to be the source of theological controversy within Mahayana Buddhism.

  • Shūnyavāda of the Mādhyamikas: this was a Mahayana school, popularized by Nagarjuna and Ashvaghosha. According to the Mādhyamikas, there is a supreme indescribable substance—Shūnyatā (lit., voidness or emptiness)—which is neither true nor false. Everything in this world arises from this voidness. Hence, the world is false as compared to the Shūnyatā. This concept somewhat resembles the Brahman of Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Adi Sankara, although Shankara condemned Shūnyavāda to be "contradictory to all valid means of knowledge".
  • Vijñānavāda of the Yogāchāras: this was another Mahayana school, propounded by Asanga and Vasubandhu. According to them, only consciousness (Vijñāna) is true, and all objects of this world external to the mind are false. They believed in an absolute, permanent consciousness (similar to a soul) called ālaya vijñāna. This branch became well-known in China, Tibet, Japan and Mongolia.
  • Bāhyānumeyavāda of the Sautrāntrikas: this was a Mahayana school which believed in the existence of both consciousness and material objects, but which believed that external objects can only be perceived indirectly through inference by our mind (i.e., indirect realism).
  • Bāhya-Pratyakshavāda of the Vaibhāshikas: this was another Theravada school based on the conclusions of an ancient Buddhist conference in Kashmir; Bāhya-Pratyakshavāda also believed in the existence of both consciousness and material objects, composed of atoms. They believed that external objects are known through direct perception (i.e., direct realism).

Decline of Buddhism in India

Main article: Decline of Buddhism in India

After about 500 CE, Buddhism showed signs of waning in India, becoming nearly extinct after about 1200 CE. This was in part due to Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita and to the rise of the bhakti movement. Over time, the local Buddhist populations were forced to convert to Islam, hence the concentration of South Asian Islam in the far west and east of the Indian subcontinent.

Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the Bauls of Bengal have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and regions bordering the Tibetan, Nepali and Bhutanese borders.

Nature of Buddha

File:Buddha image - white stone.jpg
A stone image of the Buddha.
Main article: Buddha-nature

In part of Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha, transcending his mere physical form, is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable and eternal yet realisable Dharma—ultimate truth or enlightenment (bodhi). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahayana Buddhism as One in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma. The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahayana sutras contain a set of "ultimate" (nitartha) teachings—which are rejected by the Theravadins—on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvana. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key sutras which expound it, the Buddha-dhatu (literally "Buddha-element" or "Buddha-nature") or the Tathagatagarbha. This Buddha-dhatu is empty of all that is contingent, changing, painful, and impermanent. In the Nirvana Sutra, the Buddhas calls Buddha-dhatu the "True Self" to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self. It is no less than the unfabricated, uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood: the very Dharmakaya (Chinese: 法身). This Buddha-dhatu, inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the Buddha-dhatu is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that practitioner into a Buddha. The doctrine of the Buddha-dhatu or Tathagatagarbha is stated by the Buddha of the Nirvana Sutra to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahayana Dharma.

Major sects

Stone carvings at Dazu near Chongqing, China.

Buddhism is usually divided into two main branches: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. The followers of Theravada Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pali Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahayana Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahayana sutras and their own versions of the vinaya. The Pali suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the agamas. Whereas the Theravadins adhere solely to the agamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahayana accept both the agamas and the Mahayana sutras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of person and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravadins, however, the Mahayana sutras are deviant works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. For the Mahayanists, the agamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, very precious teachings of the Buddha. In their view, the Mahayana sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path, including the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but to attain buddhahood in order to benefit all living beings. Hence the name Mahayana (lit., the Greater Vehicle), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed.

Mahayanists often refer to Theravada as belonging to the Hinayana, which literally the Lesser Vehicle. This term is now widely seen as either inaccurate or derogatory. Most adherents of Mahayana use the term Hinayana in a respectful way referring to several historical Hinayana schools that may or may not include the currently existing Theravada. Nevertheless, because of the negative connotation, some now prefer to use terms such as Nikaya Buddhism (Nikaya referring both to the agamas and to individual Buddhist orders) or Śravakayāna (Skt. Vehicle of Hearers, i.e. disciples) instead.

An alternative categorisation of Buddhism follows the major languages of the Buddhist canon, which exists in Pāli, Tibetan, and Chinese collections, along with some texts that still exist Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. This would serve to divide East Asian Mahayana Buddhism from the forms of Vajrayana Buddhism found in Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, Korea, , northern India (Sikkim & Ladakh/Leh), and Mongolia. In many works, Chan (禪; Seon, Thien, or Zen) is set out as a distinct school; this is due to the fact that Chan is a heavily sinified form of Mahayana Buddhism, having developed and evolved for many centuries within China then traveling to Korea before being passed on to Japan.

Although Buddhists agree with each other that taking refuge should be undertaken with proper motivation (complete liberation) and an understanding of the objects of refuge, the Indian scholar Atisha identified that in practice there are many different motives found for taking refuge. His philosophy was to use these different motivations as a key to resolving any apparent conflicts between all the Buddha's teachings without depending upon some form of syncretism that would cause as much confusion as it attempted to alleviate. The various motives for taking refuge are enumerated as follows, typically introduced using the concept of the "scope" (level of motivation) of a practitioner:

  • Worldly scope: to improve the lot of this life; this is not a Buddhist motivation.
  • Low scope: to gain high rebirth and avoid an unfortunate one.
  • Middle scope: to achieve nirvana, liberation from rebirth.
  • High scope: to achieve Buddhahood in order to liberate others from suffering. This is the basis of the Mahayana path.
  • An additional, highest scope is also sometimes included: to achieve Buddhahood as soon as possible—in this life—which is the scope of the highest teachings on the Vajrayana path.

Theravada

  • The Theravada school, whose name means "Doctrine of the Elders", bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pali Canon. The agamas and related vinaya texts, such as those of the Pali Canon, are generally considered by modern scholars to be the oldest of the surviving types of Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravada is the only surviving representative of the historical Nikaya branch of Buddhism. Nikaya Buddhism and consequently Theravada are sometimes referred to by the Mahayana as Hinayana or "small vehicle", although this is considered by some to be impolite. Native Theravada is practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and portions of China, Vietnam, and Malaysia. The aim of Nikaya Buddhism is to achieve liberation from rebirth and thus nirvana.

Mahayana

Relief image of the bodhisattva Kuan Yin from Mt. Jiuhua in China's Anhui province. The image's many arms represent the bodhisattva's limitless capacity and commitment to helping other beings.
  • The Mahāyāna (literally "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes universal compassion, or bodhicitta, and the selfless ideal of the bodhisattva, whose goal is to achieve Buddhahood in order to be of greatest benefit to other sentient beings. In addition to the Nikaya scriptures, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of scriptures that were first put in writing around 1 CE. These scriptures were written in some form of Sanskrit, except for a few manuscripts in certain Prakrits, and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as countless eons of time. Because of this immense timeframe, some Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a Pure Land. Generally, the Pure Land is conceived of as a state which is not enlightenment in itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward enlightenment. Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam. The various sub-sects of Mahayana Buddhism include: various schools within Pure Land Buddhism (the dominant variety of Mahayana Buddhism) and Zen. Another way to look at the variation within Mahayana is from the perspective of local cultural interpretations, viz. Chinese Buddhism, Korean Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, and Vietnamese Buddhism.

Vajrayana

  • The Vajrayāna or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayana, Tantrayana, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayana Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: Tibetan Buddhism and Shingon Buddhism. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Native Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia, Siberia, areas of India, and—in the Shingon (Zhènyān, 真言) and Tendai schools—in China and Japan.


Present state of Buddhism

Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: It transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural and the spiritual, and it is based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.
— Albert Einstein

Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [4]

The international Buddhist flag was designed in Sri Lanka in the 1880s with the assistance of Henry Steele Olcott and was later adopted as a symbol by the World Fellowship of Buddhists.

The following is a comprehensive list of the dominant forms of Buddhism along with the primary regions with which they are associated.

It is believed that, at the dawn of the modern era, China was the only country where all of the major sects of Buddhism had significant numbers of followers.

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world and are now easily available in Western countries, and increasingly translated into local languages.

While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive; in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with the powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.

Buddhism in the West

The Indo-Greek king Menander (155-130 BCE) is the first Western historical figure documented to have converted to Buddhism.
Main article: Western Buddhism

A distinctive feature of Buddhism has been the continuous evolution of the practice as it was transmitted from one country to another. This dynamic aspect is particularly evident today in the West. Occasional intersections between Western civilization and the Buddhist world have been occurring for thousands of years, from the influence of ancient Greece through Greco-Buddhism to the Beat Generation. With the development of Buddhist practices adapted to accommodate Western sensibilities, Buddhism continues to grow in the West.

Relations with other faiths

Jainism

Sculpture the two Jain tirthankaras Rishabhadeva (left) and Mahavira (right). Photographed at the British Museum

It has also been suggested that the influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar may have given rise to Buddhism. [citation needed] Buddhist scriptures describe various penances (tapas) undertaken by Gautama Siddhartha which appear identical to Jain penances (e.g., cupping the hands to consume alms, plucking of hair, the penance by five fires, etc. ). These penances were later renounced by Gautama as activities not leading to Nirvana (Final Liberation). Buddhist writings reflect that Jainism was an already established faith — rather than a newly founded or reformist one — by the time Buddha lived. Early Buddhists posited the existence of 24 previous Buddhas (Buddhas who walked the earth prior to Siddhartha Gautama, as established in the Buddhist text Mahavanso 1:100:1 among others) many of whose names are identical to those of the 24 Jain Tirthankaras and other traditional Jain figures. Suggesting close correlations between the teachings of the Jains and Buddha, the Majjhima Nikaya relates dialogues between Buddha and several members of the Nigantha (Jain) community, sometimes resulting in the latter's acceptance of Buddha as a teacher. (See also Jainism and Jainism and Buddhism)

[In many instances, both philosophies continue to share similar Prakrit terminology for important themes and teachings but may differ significantly in interpretation and meaning. This method of teaching adopted by the Buddha points to the pragmatic aspect of Buddha's style of teaching wherein the Buddha uses words and terms that are familiar to the audience instead of introducing new and complex technical jargon. In this way, Buddhism sought to appeal to a broad audience.

Jainism is an ancient religion and school of thought that predates Buddhism. One of its two most revered teachers, Mahāvīra (599 - 527 BCE according to Jains, though some scholars prefer 549-477 BCE1), was possibly a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as dynamism or vitalism, was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher Pārśvanātha's (877-777 BCE) order and the reforms instituted by Mahavira himself. (The Majjhima Nikaya relates an incident wherein a disciple brings Buddha the news that the Nigantha Nattaputta, i.e. Mahavira, had passed away, thereby suggesting the latter's seniority.) Debates between Buddhists and Jains are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Jains and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts. (See also the "Origins" section, above.)

Hinduism

Traditionally, different philosophies within Indic traditions are classified either as Astika or Nastika, that is, philosophies which either affirmed the Vedas as divinely revealed scriptures or else regarded them as fallible human inventions. Traditionally, Buddhism is one of Nastika schools in India. The term "Hinduism" is applied to Astika schools.

The relationship between Hinduism and Buddhism should not be seen as an analogue of the relationships between Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Unlike Abrahamic religions, Indic dharmas don't require exclusive allegiance and unquestioning acceptance. The relationship Hinduism and Buddhism is best understood as an analogue of the relationship between competing theories in modern day physics. There is fierce debate between the competing schools in physics but they don't to kill each other. Nor do the physicists require an unquestioning acceptance from their students. It is possible that students will change their ideas with time.

The relationship between Hinduism and Buddhism (in fact between different schools in Indic traditions) is exactly the same: they are rival competing schools of thought. Each individual has the choice to pick either school and philosophers in each school do their best to convince people.

Most Hindus, even if they do not agree with the Buddha, deeply revere the Buddha for his utter renunciation and for the remarkable person that he was. In fact, the Bhagavata Purana, one of the most important texts of the Hindus, considers the Buddha an incarnation of Vishnu. There can be no higher testament to the Buddha's holiness than this. The Puranas also claim that Vishnu used his incarnation as the Buddha to deceive the unorthodox for his own reasons.

Buddha Purnima, a festival celebrating the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most popular Hindu festivals.

For further information, see Gautama Buddha in Hinduism.

Chinese religions and philosophies

Taoism. Gathering the Light grafic from The Secret of the Golden Flower, by C. G. Jung and Richard Wilhelm

The relationships between Taoism (Chinese folk religion still popular today) and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to renew and restructure itself and address existential questions raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind of foreign Taoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Chan (Seon, Thien, or Zen) Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Taoism.

Confucianism also has much in common with Buddhism, and historically, people have practiced both. Some would argue however, that Confucianism is in fact not a religion, but a philosophy. Whatever the case, Buddhism shares many commonalities with Neo-Confucianism , which is Confucianism with more religious elements. In fact, the ritual of ancestor worship normally practiced by Confucianists, has been adapted to Chinese Buddhist beliefs.

Abrahamic religions

In viewing the relationship of Buddhism to the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, one notes that the Buddha was not satisfied with the concept of one Almighty God (Ishvara, lit., the Supreme Lord). While the existence of supernatural beings is recognized in Buddhism, they are not seen as all-powerful creators or rulers of the universe. The Buddha said that the ever-changing world goes on according to the law of dependent origination. Also, the hypothesis of God raises philosophical problems, such as why the world is ever-changing and full of sorrow (the problem of evil), and why God created the world at all.[citation needed] Furthermore, the Buddha had stated that "the Supreme Reality is indescribable and inutterable".

See also

Buddhism

References

  • Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 1-84483-125-6. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  • Template:Web-cite ISBN 9834007127.
  • Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192892231.
  • Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0861713214.
  • Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The vision of the Buddha. Duncan Baird Publishers. ISBN 1903296919.
  • Thich Nhat Hanh (1974), The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books ISBN 0767903692.
  • Thurman, Robert A. F. (translator) (1976). Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0271006013. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  • Walpola Rahula (1974), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press ISBN 0802130313.
  • Kenneth White (2005), The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo, The Edwin Mellen Press ISBN 0773459855.
  • Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page. The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra. (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000). {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Yin Shun, Yeung H. Wing (translator) (1998), The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master, Wisdom Publications {{citation}}: |author= has generic name (help) ISBN 0861711335.

Notes

  1. ^ Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings. Published on the Web.
  2. ^ Chögyal Namkhai Norbu Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42
  3. ^ Dr. A. Berzin. Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making
  4. ^ Elías Capriles. Buddhism and Dzogchen: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook. Published on the Web.
  5. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha. Third edition, revised, 2001

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