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File:Mathura ayagapatta3.jpg
Pre-Kushana Ayagapatta from Mathura

Jainism (pronounced in English as /ˈdʒeɪ.nɪzm̩/), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a religion and philosophy originating in the prehistory of South Asia. Now a minority in modern India with growing communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, the Far East and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic tradition.

Jainism has significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millennia. Jainism stresses the spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on non-violence. Self-control (व्रत, vrata) is the means by which Jains attain moksha, Keval Gnan, or realization of the soul's true nature.

A lay Jain is termed a shravak (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ), or order, has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and lay women.

Overview of Jain Dharma

Jain philosophy is considered a compilation of eternal, universal truths. Over a period of time, these truths may lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached enlightenment or total knowledge (Keval Gnan). Traditionally,in our universe and in our time, Lord Rishabh (ऋषभ or रिषभ) is regarded as the first to realize those truths followed by Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman Mahavir (महावीर) (599-527 BCE).

Jainism teaches that every living thing is an individual with an eternal soul, jīva, and responsible for its actions. This teaches the individual to live, think and act with respect and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Anant Jnän, Anant Darshan, Anant Chäritra, and Anant Sukh). Jainism does not include a belief in an omnipotent supreme being or creator, but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws, the interplay of the attributes (gunas) of matter (dravyas) that make it up.

The primary figures of Jainism are Tirthankars. Jainism has two main divisions: Digambar and Shvetambar. Both believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsar, and jiva. Jain scriptures were written over a long period and the most cited scripture is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by Umasvati (or Umasvami),the monk-scholar, more than 18 centuries ago.

Compassion for all living beings, along with humans, is central to Jainism. It is the only religion that requires both monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. In regions of India with a strong Jain influence, often the majority of the local non Jain population is also vegetarian. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters, e.g. a bird hospital in Delhi is run by a Jain temple. Historians believe that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to a strong Jainism and Buddhism influence.

Jain layman worshipping at the temple at Rankapur. Jain cleaning the temple at Ranakpur. When we speak or open our mouths, sometimes spittle sprays out. The mask over his face is to prevent spit droplets from landing on holy images or books. .

Jainism's stance on nonviolence, goes simply beyond vegetarianism. The Jain diet excludes most root vegetables, as Jains believe such vegetables have infinite individual souls, invisible to our eyes. Jains will not eat food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many are vegan, due to their perceived violence of modern dairy farms. Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset, and always rise before sunrise.

Anekantavad is a foundation pillar of Jain philosophy. Literally meaning "Non-one-endedness" or "Nonsingular Conclusivity", Anekantavad consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on a topic, object, process, state, or on reality in general. One tool called The Doctrine of Postulation, i.e., Syādvāda. Anekantavada is defined as a multiplicity of views for it stresses looking at things from another's perspective.

Jains are remarkably welcoming and friendly toward other faiths. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the Hindu institutions of Dharmasthala, including the Sri Manjunath Temple, for eight centuries. Jains willingly donate money to churches and mosques and often help to organize multi-religious functions. Jain monks, like the late Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar actively promoted harmony among rival faiths to defuse tension.

Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences, and to Mohandas Gandhi's politics, which led to the 20th century's mainly non-violent movement towards Indian independence.

Universal History and Jain Cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six eons (yugas). The present world age is the fifth of these "cycles", a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years.

When this cycle reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called Tirthankars (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on.

In each of these enormously long alternations of time there are always twenty-four Tirthankars. In our era, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavir in 527 BC. Jains regard him, and all Tirthankars, as a reformer who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is based. Hence the title Bhagavan ("Lord") is applied to Mahavir and all other Tirathankars in the sense of the Venerable One.

File:Bhavajale.jpg
Bhaktamara Stotra: Tirthankara is shelter from ocean of rebirths

The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this age is known by his title, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). He too was a wandering ascetic teacher who attempted to recall the Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.

Jains believe that reality is made up of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of an infinite number of identical spiritual units; ajiva (that is, non-jiva) is matter in all its forms and the conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement.

Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, etc.

Any contact whatsoever of the jiva with the ajiva causes the former to suffer. Thus Jains believe that existence in this world inevitably means some suffering. Neither social nor individual reform can totally stop suffering. In every human, a jiva is trapped, and the jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. To avoid suffering, the jiva must escape completely from the four ghatis (stages) of Human Life, Heavenly Bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish Life, and Hell, by practising Jainism continuously and attain liberation, salvation,never letting go of the ultimate aim.

Karma and transmigration keep the jiva trapped in ajiva. Achieving release from the human condition is difficult. Jains believe that the jiva continues to suffer during all its lives or reincarnations, which are indefinite in number. They believe that every action, good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of its next reincarnation.

The consequence of evil actions is heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower level in the scale of existence. The consequence of good deeds, on the other hand, is a light karma, which allows the jiva to rise in its next life to a higher level in the scale of existence, where there is less suffering. However, good deeds alone can never lead to release.

The fylfot (a.k.a. swastik) is one of the holiest Jain symbols. Worshippers often use rice grains to create fylfot symbols around the temple altar.

The way to moksh (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma keeps the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which the jiva suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus liberation means an escape from karma, its annihilation and avoidance of new karma.

Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it down, the jiva will float free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the top of the universe to a place or state called Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, isolation and liberation. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from involvement in the world as much as possible, and close the channel of the senses and the mind to prevent karmic matter from entering and adhering to the jiva. Such eternal liberation from the unbinding of the Jiva and the Pudgala (ajiva), so no new reincarnation occurs into the material world, is called as Moksh. Ignorance (ajñāna) causes attachment, and true knowledge (keval jñāna)leads to liberation.

S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology after the following manner:

"In Jain tradition, the first teacher, Rishabh, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil has appeared, a teacher/Tirthankara was needed for people to cope with life. In the fourth period, evils proliferated such that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve mokasha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live no longer than 125 years, but the sixth epoch will be even worse. 'Man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to the size of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the world cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wishing trees, and man's height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate again, with a repeat of Avasarpini; Usarpini will come again afterwards, in a neverending cycle, according to Jain cosmology." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)

Beliefs and practices

File:Jainism logo.png
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahinsa, meaning non-injury and non-violence. The word in the middle of the wheel reads "ahimsa." The wheel represents the dharma-chakra. This logo represents halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.

On one hand, there are the monks, who practice severe asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there are the lay people, who pursue less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and do good deeds in this birth. Due to the strict ethics embedded in Jainism, the laity must choose a profession and livelihood that does not involve violence to self and other living beings.

In their effort to attain their highest and most exalted state of being a Siddha, which is the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, the Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them in any way. The Jains consider that the devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help the jiva to obtain release. This has to be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, the devas cannot even gain their own release until they are reincarnated as humans and undertake the difficult actions of removing the karmas.

The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are:

  1. Nonviolence (ahinsa, or ahimsa)
  2. Truth (satya)
  3. Non-stealing (asteya)
  4. Chastity (brahma-charya)
  5. Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah)

For lay people, 'chastity' means confining sexual experience to the marriage relationship. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being strictly vegetarian. The Jain is expected to follow the principle of non-violence in all his/her thoughts, words and deeds, not only towards fellow human beings, but also towards all living creatures. There are some Jains who wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid any possibility of breathing in tiny insects.

Along with the above Five Vows, JAINS also believe in forgiving others and harboring no harmful feelings against others in their hearts. They also believe that AATMA can lead one to become PARMATMA but that the voice has to come from one's inner-self; no one can lead another on any path but can only show the way to the path. Jains also believe that anger toward another person becomes one's own biggest enemy, they trust in the belief “JEEYO AUR JEENE DO” (live and let others live).

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by the Jain emphasis on a peaceful, non-harming way of life which is common to the Jain philosophy and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.

Jain symbols

Jains have few core symbols. One Jain symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of the hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastika.

Major Jains symbols include:

Jain fasting

Fasting is very common in Jain spirituality. It is a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains will fast at special times during the year, at festivals and holy days. However, a Jain may take it upon him or herself to fast at anytime. The monsoon period (in India) is a time of fasting.

The aim of fasting

Jain fasts may be done as a penance, especially for monks and nuns. Fasting also purifies body and mind, and reminds the practitioner of Mahavira's emphasis on renunciation and asceticism, because Mahavira spent a great deal of time fasting. It is not sufficient for a Jain simply to not eat when fasting, they must also stop wanting to eat. If they continue to desire food the fast is pointless.

Types of fast

There are several types of fasting:

  • Complete fasting: giving up food and water completely for a period.
  • Partial fasting: eating less than you need to avoid hunger.
  • Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten.
  • Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods.
  • Great fasts: Some Jain monks fast for months at a time, following the example of Mahavira, who is said to have fasted for over 6 months.

Different types of fast

  • Choviharo Upavasa - To give up food and water for the whole day.
  • Upavasa - To give up only food for the whole day.

Digamber Upvas: One can only drink water once a day and it has to be consumed before sunset. Shwetamber Upvas: One can consume as many glasses of water as one wishes, however these also have to be consumed before sunset.

  • Ekasana - To eat one meal a day at one sitting and drink water as many times as one wishes inbetween sunrise and sunset.
  • Beasana - To eat two meals a day which requires to eat one meal per sitting and also drink water as many times inbetween sunrise and sunset.
  • Ayambil: Taking food only once in one sitting. The food should not have any taste and spices and should be boiled or cooked. Also, one shall not take milk, curds, ghee, oil, and green or raw vegetables.
  • Chaththa - To give up food and water or only food continuously for two whole days.
  • Aththama - To give up food and water or to give up only food continuously for three whole days.
  • Aththai - To give up food and water or only food continuously for eight days.
  • Masaksamana - To give up food and water or only food continuously for one whole month.
  • Navkarsi: One must take food and water fourtyeight(48) minutes after sunrise. Even the brushing of one's teeth and rinsing of once mouth must be done after sunrise.
  • Porsi: Taking food and water three hours after sunrise.
  • Sadh-porsi: Taking food and water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
  • Purimuddh: Taking food and water six hours after sunrise.
  • Avadhdh: Taking food and water eight hours after sunrise.
  • Tivihar (Many Jains follow this type of fasting on daily basis): After sunset no food or juice shall be taken, but one may

take only water until sunrise the next day.

  • Navapad oli During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day in the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. These ayambils can also be restricted to only one kind of food grain per day.

Other austerities are varshitap, Vardhaman, and visasthanak tap, etc.

Jain literature

The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars, etc), Hindi (Chhahdhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka, etc), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane, etc.). See Jain literature for more details.

Jain worship and rituals

Jains have built temples where images of their Tirthankaras are venerated. Jain rituals can be elaborate and include offerings of symbolic objects, with the Tirthankaras being praised in chant. In some Jain sects, temples and images are not required.

Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer, the Namaskara Sutra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship.

Jain worship may or may not involve temples. The sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains such as The Terapanthi Jains do not believe in idol worship hence do not have temples.

Jain rituals include:

  • Pancha-kalyanaka Pratishtha
  • Pratikramana
  • Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.

The Jain rituals for marriage and other family rites are distinct and uniquely Indian, usually minor variants of those in orthodox Hinduism.

Digambar and Shvetambar traditions

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Svetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect.

The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes because they believe clothes are like all other possessions thereby increasing desire to material things, which needs to be removed. The Svetambar monks wear white clothes because they believe there is nothing in Jain religious books to condemn the wearing of clothes. The different points of view are caused by different interpretations of similar holy books. The sadhvis (lady religious persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's Agama (sacred) literature.

There are also many other differences between Digambar and Shvetambar traditions. The former believe that women cannot attain moksha,while Shvetambars believe that women can attain liberation.

Some historians believe that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Svetambar tradition.

Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Shvetambaras.

Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects, such as Sthanakvasi, Terapanth, Deravasi, and Bisapantha. Some of these can be divided into murtipujak (idol worshipper) and not murtipujak. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.

Geographical spread and influence

File:RanakpurJainTem.jpg
Jain temple in Ranakpur

It has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism.

The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.

At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab.

It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad.

There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles.

Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka and what are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Afghanistan.

Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions.

Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

Jain contributions to Indian culture

While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable.

The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.

Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions and garlic.

According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions.

Literature The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages.

  • In Kannada almost the entire early literature is of Jain origin.
  • Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
  • Several of the Tamil classics are written by Jain authors or have Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
  • Practically all of the known texts of the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

Jainism and Indian archaeology

Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the 'specialized sources', below.)

Decipherment of Brahmi by James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.

Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later periods.

Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

Holy sites

Palitana Tirtha

There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.

There is also one temple in the United States that is considered to be a pilgrimage place. Siddhachalam is located in New Jersey.

Jain temples in the West

Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html

Holy days

The Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.

Jainism and other religions

South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:

Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:

See also

References

Introductory:

  • Jain, Duli C. (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
  • Parik, Vastupal Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.

Detailed Introduction:

  • Shah, Natubhai, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
  • Jaini, Padmanabh S., Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
  • Titze, Kurt, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
  • Wiley, Kristi, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
  • Mishra, Mamta, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
  • Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
  • Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
  • The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Specialized sources:

  • Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
  • Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
  • Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
  • Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
  • Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
  • Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
  • Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
  • Cort, John, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India', New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen
  • Vallely, Anne, Gaurdians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001.
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