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Superpower

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For other uses, see Superpower (disambiguation).

A superpower is a state with the first rank in the international system and the ability to influence events and project power on a worldwide scale; it is considered a higher level of power than a major power. It was a term applied to the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War, although it was for a short time, in the immediate aftermath of World War Two, applied to the British Empire.

Currently one superpower exists: the United States; sometimes, given the unipolar nature of the world, claimed to be a hyperpower. China and India appear to have the greatest potential, amongst all the other nations, of achieving superpower or near-superpower status within the 21st century and are often termed as emerging superpowers. The European Union has economic power comparable to the United States; as a result some consider that it too could emerge as a superpower, despite not being politically unified. Many others doubt the existence of superpowers altogether, stating that today's complex global marketplace and the rising interdependency between the worlds' nations has made the concept of a superpower an idea of the past.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

Origins

The term "superpower" was first used in this context in 1930, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, but did not become a primarily descriptive term for the United States and the Soviet Union until the immediate post-war years (in the 1920s the term was used to describe electrification).Template:Inote

The term in its current political meaning is relatively new and was coined in the book The Superpowers, written by William Thornton Rickert Fox, an American foreign policy professor at the Columbia University in 1943. Fox used this word to identify a new category of power able to occupy the highest status in a world in which, as the war then raging demonstrated, states could challenge and fight each other on a global scale. According to him, there were (at that moment) three states that were superpowers: the United States, the Soviet Union, and the British Empire.

The Suez Crisis made it clear that the British Empire, economically ravaged by two world wars, could no longer compete on an equal footing with the Soviet Union and the United States without sacrificing its reconstruction efforts, even while acting in concert with France and Israel. Thus, the United Kingdom became the chief ally of the United States, and the most important and most powerful ally on the American side of the Cold War.

As the majority of World War II was fought far from its national boundaries, the United States did not suffer the industrial destruction or massive civilian casualties that marked the wartime situation of the countries in Europe or Asia. During the war, the United States had built up a strong industrial and technological infrastructure that had greatly advanced its military strength into a primary position on the global stage.

Following the war, nearly all of Europe had aligned either with the United States or the Soviet Union. Despite attempts to create multinational coalitions or legislative bodies (such as the United Nations), it became increasingly clear that the United States and the Soviet Union were the dominant political and economic powers of the newly emerging Cold War, and had very different visions about what the post-war world ought to look like. This was reflected in the NATO and Warsaw Pact military alliances. These alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world. A number of nations undertook various programs to attempt to secure their own independent "superpower" status, such as the development of nuclear weapons by the United Kingdom, France, and China, as a rite of passage for being a "world player."

The idea that the Cold War period revolved around only two nations, or even only two blocs, has been challenged by some scholars in the post-Cold War era, who have noted that the bipolar world only exists if one ignores all of the various movements and conflicts that occurred without influence from either of the two so-called superpowers. Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in "proxy wars", which more often than not involved issues far more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions.

After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term hyperpower began to be applied to the United States, as the sole remaining superpower of the Cold War era. This term, coined by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the 1990s, is controversial and the validity of classifying the United States in this way is disputed. One notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favour of a multipolar balance of power.

There have been attempts to stretch the term back in time. As such some consider as superpowers the Mongol Empire, Ancient Rome, and even the empire of Alexander of Macedon - this is not widespread however, and the validity of this tendency is disputed.

Criteria

Template:Inote The criteria of a superpower are not clearly defined and as a consequence they may differ between sources. The following criteria should therefore be interpreted as a non-exhaustive list of power factors that are generally associated with superpowers.

Cultural
Strong cultural influence, having soft power. Cultural influence implies a developed philosophy and ideology.
Geographical
It should have a wide land or sea area under its control. Territory allows a country to mine minerals and grow food, increasing its self-sufficiency. It is an important factor in warfare as it allows possibilities such as retreat, regrouping and reorganisation as well as placing distant radars and missile silos - even a richer country with smaller territory is more vulnerable in a military sense.
Economic and financial
Superior economic power is characterized by access to raw materials, volume and productivity of the domestic market, a leading position in world trade as well as global financial markets, innovation, and the ability to accumulate capital. Human space exploration may be considered one of the key defining economic characteristics of the Cold War superpowers, as this ability was a source of intense rivalry between them for decades. Space exploration represents an ability to spend in drastically wide-scale operations.
Demographic
A superpower should have a large and educated populace and should have a highly developed infrastructure and pronounced cultural and economic ability to shape the regions around them as well as the ones under direct control.
Military
Pre-eminent military ability, characterized by relative invulnerability, ability to deter or cause great damage, and capacity to effectively project unified military power globally, including nuclear weapons. However, nuclear weapons alone do not necessarily make a nation a superpower, and being a superpower may not necessarily require nuclear weapons, although some would agree that one should at least have the ability to create them relatively quickly. Nations such as Japan would fit this definition.
Political or ideological
A functioning political system that is capable of mobilizing resources for world political goals and immense ideological influence.

Lifted from Global CPR - http://www.globalcpr.com/org/super.html

The Cold War era

  Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
  United States of America
Main article: Cold War

The term 'superpower' in this context was originally coined to describe the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which opposed each other politically and economically during the Cold War.

The Soviet Union represented the ideology of Communism, but more correctly Stalinism, and led the Warsaw Pact, known as the Eastern Bloc in the West.

The United States represented the ideology of capitalism and led NATO during the Cold War.

The Soviet Union and the United States fulfilled the superpower criteria in the following ways:

The Soviet Union The United States
Political Strong system of government. Communist ideals spread influence over the globe. Had permanent seat on the UN Security Council. Strong ties with Eastern Europe and the developing world. Strong and stable liberal democracy, influence over the globe. Strong companies allowed the US to exert further influence over capitalist nations. Permanent seat on the UN Security Council. Strong ties with Western Europe.
Geographic Covered 22 million km², 11 time zones; was largest country in the world. Covered huge sea area, vast deposits of minerals and large farming areas. Third largest country in the world, with an area of approximately 9.6 million km²[1]. Vast resources of minerals, large farming industry.
Cultural Vast influence over neighbours, varied and rich history and culture. Wielded influence through socialist and communist governments and organizations around the world. Huge influence over most of continent, integrated culture with Western Europe. Companies sold American culture over the world. Freedom of speech attractive to many over the world.
Military The largest army the world has ever seen. Sizeable air force, imposing navy. Largest nuclear arsenal in the world, the largest territory in the world with an abundance of strategic resources, and the capability to develop advanced military and space technologies. Bases all over the world, second largest stocks of nuclear weapons not only stationed on own soil, but also in Europe. Technologically advanced army and world's largest and most technologically advanced navy.
Space technology Both countries have participate in human space exploration and built space stations in the 20th century, with pre-eminence in robotic exploration and satellite technology.
Economic Was the largest centrally directed economy in the world. At one point, produced 20% of the world's industrial output Largest capitalist economy in the world. Very strong currency, the US dollar.
Demographic Had a population of 293 million. Population of approximately 280 million.

Superpowers today

The post-Cold War world is wildly considered as a unipolar world, as United States the world's sole remaining superpower, with the largest economic and military strength. This however, is not that simple, because of the difficulty of classifying the European Union at a current stage of development. Additonally many argue that the EU is underestimated[8], while others argue that the notion of a superpower being antiquated considering the complex global economic interdependecies that define this new century.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][9]

Russia, however, as the legal successor state to the Soviet Union, also retains certain aspects of a superpower (e.g. large nuclear arsenal, a large population, the largest territory in the world with an abundance of strategic resources, and the capability to develop advanced military and space technologies).

Some analysts think the hegemonic stability theory explains the current evolution in international relations. Hegemonic states tend to overstretch their power, and new rivals will become gradually more powerful, eventually replacing or counterbalancing the weakened hegemony. Some believe this is actually happening at the moment.

Possible signals that a multipolar world is emerging are the rise of China and India, combined with the possibilities raised by the enormous economic clout of the European Union.

The United States

Most persons (see introduction) consider the United States the only country that now meets all superpower criteria. There are, however, some who believe that we live in a multipolar world and that the United States' power is overestimated.[10] Some consider the European Union not a political entity (Sui generis entity, no state) and therefore not an actual superpower. Others state that the E.U. has sufficient unity to be considered a global player as is, without further integration.[11]

Geographic factors

  • The United States is the third largest country in the world by land area, after Russia and Canada. (Counting Taiwan's area as part of China puts the U.S. in fourth place.)

Demographic factors

  • With nearly 300,000,000, the U.S. has the third largest population, about 5% of the world's total.
  • It has the highest population growth rate of all developed nations, as a result of immigration and natural growth.
  • It has a high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations.PDF.
  • It is the only industrialized country that not expected to experience a loss in work-force or general population in the coming decades.

Education in the United States

  • The United States invests 2.6 percent of its GDP on higher education, compared with 1.2 percent in Europe and 1.1 percent in Japan.
  • Of the world's 20 top universities, 18 are American, according to the London-based Center for European Reform.
  • The United States is the most attractive destination for students, receiving 30 percent of the total number of foreign students globally.
  • U.S. spending on research and development remains higher than Europe's, and its collaborations between business and educational institutions are unmatched in the world.
  • The World Economic Forum ranks the United States first in technology and innovation, first in technological readiness, first in company spending for research and technology, and first in the quality of its research institutions.

Political factors

Economic and financial factors

  • It has the largest capital markets in the world[2], and is the largest debtor nation, owing more than USD $9 trillion in 2005, a debt growing at the rate of $3 billion per working day.[3]
  • The country is a key producer in the areas of agriculture and commodities [4] PDF, although it is dependent on petroleum imports.
  • It has a decisive influence on international financial bodies, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; the American dollar is the most important reserve and convertible currency in the world.

Military factors

File:WorldMilitarySpending.jpg
  • The U.S. spends more dollars per year on its military than the next twelve countries combined. It has the second largest nuclear arsenal (after Russia) and combines some of the world's most technologically advanced weapons systems with the expeditionary capability to project military power to any point in the world.

Space-technology factor

Cultural factors

  • American culture is influential worldwide, especially in the English-speaking world (soft power, Anti-Americanism).
  • Built by immigrants, and aided by continuing immigration, is one of the most racially and ethnically diverse countries in the world.

European Union debate

Main Article: European Union as an emerging superpower

There is some debate as to whether the European Union should be considered a superpower. If the qualities of its member states were to be combined the EU would be a superpower rivaling the United States.

The European Union is, however, still considered an emerging superpower as it is yet not fully united. This contrast to China and India who are politcally unified but still lack some economic development. The European Union contains several current great powers, including the United Kingdom, Germany, & France, along with 22 other countries. If considered as a full unit, the EU can be considered a superpower.

The EU currently features the world's largest GDP and consumer market and has considerable control over the global allocation of resources, yet it is currently argued that the European Union is too politically and culturally fragmented to be considered as a single unit, especially since two of the principal levers of power - foreign policy and defence - are exercised principally by the individual member states.

The confusion seems to stem from the EU being a sui generis entity.

Emerging superpowers

Main article: Emerging superpowers
File:Superpower2.png
  China
  European Union
  India

China and India are referred to in many media sources as having the potential to become superpowers. Template:Inote

People's Republic of China

Main Article: People's Republic of China as an emerging superpower

Excluding economic data from Hong Kong and Taiwan, the People's Republic of China is currently the world's fourth largest economy in terms of market exchange rates and the second largest economy in terms of real GDP (PPP) and is considered a rising superpower due to its large, stable and highly productive population, its rapidly growing economy which has an annual growth rate of 9.2%, and its rapidly growing military spending and capabilities.

India

Main article: India as an emerging superpower

The Republic of India is currently the world's twelfth largest economy in terms of market exchange rates and the fourth largest economy in terms of real GDP (PPP) with an annual growth rate of 8.1%. It is considered as a possible future superpower because it has a growing skilled workforce and one of the fastest growing economies (especially in the service sector and software industry).

See also

References and sources

  1. ^ a b "The Global list (No superpower)". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b "Washington Post (No superpower)". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b "Huffington Post (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  4. ^ a b "Globalpolicy.org (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  5. ^ a b "Townhall.com (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  6. ^ a b "A Times (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  7. ^ a b "Captol Hill Blue (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  8. ^ "Cafebabel on the EU being underestimated". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  9. ^ "Newsmax (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  10. ^ Yale Globa "Yale Global". Retrieved 2006-06-11. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  11. ^ "Dominion Paper". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  12. ^ "The Economist comparing the EU to US economy". Retrieved 2006-06-10.

USA strength

Books

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