Japan

This page is about the country Japan. For other uses, see the disambiguation pages for Japan

State of Japan 日本国 Nihon-koku Nippon-koku
Flag Imperial Seal
Motto: Peace and Progress
Anthem: Kimi Ga Yo
Capital	Tokyo
Largest city	Tokyo*
Official languages	Japanese
Government	Constitutional monarchy
• Emperor	Akihito
• Prime Minister	Junichiro Koizumi
Formation
• Emperor Jimmu	660 BC
• Meiji Restoration	January 3, 1868
• Current constitution	May 3, 1947
• Treaty of San Francisco	April 28, 1952
• Water (%)	0.8%
Population
• 2005 estimate	128,085,000 (10th)
GDP (PPP)	2006 estimate
• Total	$4.167 trillion (3rd)
• Per capita	$32,640 (16th)
GDP (nominal)	2004 estimate
• Total	4.8 trillion (2nd)
HDI (2003)	0.943 very high (11th)
Currency	Yen (¥) (JPY)
Time zone	UTC+9 (JST)
• Summer (DST)	None
Calling code	81
ISO 3166 code	JP
Internet TLD	.jp
* Largest urban area. Yokohama is the largest incorporated city.

Japan (Japanese: 日本, Nihon or Nippon) is an East Asian island country located in the Pacific Ocean, east of China and Korea, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. It is composed of over 3,000 islands, the largest of which are Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū. Most of Japan's islands are mountainous, and many are volcanic; the highest peak is Mount Fuji.

The written history of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the first century CE. However, archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the upper paleolithic period. Japanese history has had alternating periods of long isolation punctuated by radical, sometimes revolutionary, influence from the outside world. Its culture today is a mixture of such outside influences and traditional culture.

Japan has the world's second largest economy, one of the world's leading industrialized nations and is member of the G8, G4, APEC nations and a major economic global power as sixth largest exporter and importer. It is a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, called the Diet, which is one of the oldest legislative bodies in Asia. Despite its rugged terrain, Japan is one of the most populous and most densely populated countries in the world. Greater Tokyo, with over 30 million residents, is the largest metropolitan area in the world.

The characters that make up Japan's name literally mean "Land of the Rising Sun", a name that comes from the country's eastward position relative to China.

History

Main article: History of Japan

Pre-history

Archaeological research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of the Japanese Archipelago migrated over land bridges from Northeast Asia about 30,000 years ago. Other evidence also suggests that there may have been some migration by sea from Southeast Asia during a period of general migration toward the Pacific Ocean.

A Middle Jomon vessel (3000 to 2000 BC)

The first signs of civilization appeared around 10,000 BC with the Jōmon culture, characterized by a mesolithic to neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Weaving was still unknown and clothes were often made of bark. Around that time, however, the Jomon people started to make clay vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jōmon means "patterns of plaited cord"). This led to the introduction of the earliest known pottery in the world.

Many believe that the Ainu, an indigenous people found mostly on the northern island of Hokkaidō, are descended from the Jomon and thus represent descendants of the first inhabitants of Japan.

The start of the Yayoi period around 300 BC marked the influx of new practices such as rice farming, shamanism and iron and bronze-making brought by migrants from Korea, and most likely China. These formed the basic elements of traditional Japanese culture, still seen today. As the population increased and society became more complex, they began to weave cloth, live in permanent farming villages, construct buildings of wood and stone, accumulate wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and develop distinct social classes.

The ensuing Kofun era, beginning around AD 250 and named after the giant burial mounds that were popular at the time, saw the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clan leaders. The Yamato Court, concentrated in the Asuka region, suppressed the surrounding clans and acquired agricultural lands, increasing their power. Based upon the Chinese model, they then developed a central administrative and imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups: farmers, fishermen, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

Classical era

Japan first appeared in written history in 57 AD with the following mention in the Eastern Han Chronicles of China: "Across the ocean from Luoyang are the people of Wa (in Chinese, "Wo" or "dwarf state"). Formed from more than one hundred countries, they come and pay tribute frequently." The beginning of historical writing in Japan culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720). These chronicles give a much different and more legendary tale of Japan's beginnings in which the people are descendants of the gods themselves.

According to the myths contained in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded in 660 BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu, or the Sun Goddess. The myths also claim that Jimmu started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor Ōjin, though the date of his reign is uncertain. In any event, for most of Japan's history, the real political power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the shoguns, the military and, more recently, the prime minister.

The Japanese did not start writing their own histories until after the 5th and 6th centuries, when the Chinese writing system, Buddhism, advanced pottery, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Starting with the Taika Reform Edicts of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government and the penal code in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure (the Ritsuryo state) of the time. This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.

The use of the word Nihon (日本) for the emerging state first appeared around the end of the 7th century.

The Great Buddha at Todaiji, Nara, originally cast in 752

The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijo-kyo (now Nara). The imperial court then moved briefly to Nagaoka, and then to Heian-kyō (now Kyoto).

A distinctly indigenous culture emerged during the Heian period which lasted for nearly four centuries. After absorbing so much from the mainland over several centuries, the Japanese began to experience a growing sense of self-confidence and appreciation of their own land and heritage. The arts and literature flourished and, in the early 11th century, Lady Murasaki wrote the world's first known novel called The Tale of Genji. Although trade expeditions and Buddhist pilgrimages continued, the court decided to discontinue official relations with China. The Fujiwara clan's regency regime dominated politics during this period.

Medieval era

Samurai of the Satsuma clan, during the Boshin War period, circa 1867. Photograph by Felice Beato

Japan's medieval era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the buke or more commonly known in the West as the samurai and bushi. In the year 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, general Minamoto no Yoritomo was declared Seii-tai Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hojo, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, with assistance from a storm that the Japanese interpreted as divine intervention, and named kamikaze (Divine Wind). The shogunate lasted another fifty years. Its successor, the Ashikaga shogunate failed in the management of Daimyo. Vassals rebelled against their liege lords and peasants rebelled against their superiors. This led to the "Warring States" or Sengoku period.

During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu established greater control over the warring states of Japan. Nobunaga died in a treacherous attack by one of his generals whom he had humiliated earlier. Hideyoshi, one of Nobunaga's other generals, avenged his master's death, defeating other rivals and completing the reunification of the country. Hideyoshi launched two ill-fated invasions against Korea. But Ming China came to Korea's aid and following Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were quickly withdrawn.

Map of Japan, end of the 17th century.

Ieyasu then dominated the political scene and defeated a coalition of rival clans. He was eventually declared shogun and worked to consolidate the hold of his clan on Japan, setting up the Bakuhan taisei feudal system and implementing Sankin-kotai to ensure the loyalty of the vassal lords. After Ieyasu, the Tokugawa shogunate began to pursue the Sakoku ("closed country") policy of isolation. Lasting for two and a half centuries, this during a time of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period, often considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. The study of Western sciences, known as Rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki.

Modern era

Meiji Restoration

Main article: Meiji Restoration

Fukuzawa Yukichi, c.1860.

The Empire of Japan encompassed most of East and Southeast Asia at its height, in 1942

On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The Boshin War of 1867 to 1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the Meiji Restoration established a government centered around the emperor. One of the main figures that helped bring change was Fukuzawa Yukichi who wrote "Leaving Asia", encouraging Japan to disassociate itself from China and Korea and modernize through Westernization.

Imperial Japan

Main article: Imperial Japan

During the Meiji period, Japan adopted numerous Western institutions, including a modern government, legal system, and military. These reforms helped transform the Empire of Japan into a world power, defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The Russo-Japanese war is important because it was the first time that an Asian country had defeated a European imperial power. By 1910, Japan controlled Korea, Taiwan, and the southern half of Sakhalin.

Yamato, the largest battleship in history, in 1941.

The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism. World War I enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia, and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1936, however, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, joining Germany and Italy to form the Axis alliance. Japan invaded China, occupying Manchuria in 1931, and continued its expansion into China in 1937, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), which lasted until the end of World War II. In 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the Allies, bringing the United States into the war. Japan then invaded and occupied British, Dutch, and U.S. colonies that now make up the present-day countries of Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore.

The atomic bombing of Nagasaki.

After a long campaign in the Pacific Ocean, Japan lost many of its initial territorial gains, and American forces moved close enough to begin strategic bombing of Tokyo, Osaka, and other major cities including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing about 214,000 people, mostly civilians. The Japanese eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on August 15, 1945 (V-J Day). The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal was convened on May 31946 to prosecute Japanese war crimes, including atrocities like the Nanking Massacre. Emperor Hirohito, however, was given immunity and retained his title.

Modern Japan

The war cost millions of lives in Japan and other countries, especially in East Asia, and left much of the country's industries and infrastructure destroyed. Official American occupation lasted until 1952, although U.S. forces still retain important bases in Japan, especially in Okinawa. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution, seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices.

After the occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and U.S. assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world. Despite a major stock market crash in 1990 and the resulting recession from which the country is recovering gradually, Japan remains a global economic power today and is now bidding for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.

Government and politics

File:Akihito.jpg

His Imperial Majesty, Emperor Akihito of Japan

The Parliament sits in joint session.

Template:Morepolitics In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a constitutional monarchy, based largely upon the British system with strong influences from European continental civil law countries such as Germany and France. For example, in 1896 the Japanese government established Minpo, the Civil Code, on the French model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.

Parliament

The Constitution of Japan states that the nation's "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral parliament, the National Diet (Kokkai). The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every 4 years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi-in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage, with a secret ballot for all elective offices.

The Cabinet is composed of a Prime Minister and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan.

The Imperial household

The Imperial Household of Japan is headed by the Emperor of Japan. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power; not even emergency reserve powers. Power is mainly held by the Prime Minister, and other elected members of the Diet. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave (with widespread public support, it should be noted) as though he were a head of state. As of 2006, Japan is the only country in the world with an emperor.

Foreign relations and military

Main article: [[:Foreign relations of Japan and Military of Japan]]

U.S. President George W. Bush and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi meet in Tokyo

Japan maintains close economic and military ties with its key ally, the United States, and the US-Japan security alliance serves as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Japan is a member state of the United Nations and currently serving as a non-permanent Security Council member. It is also one of the "G4 nations" seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.

As a major economic power, Japan is a member of the G8. It is also a member of the APEC, a part of the "ASEAN plus three" group, and a participant in the East Asia Summit. The country is a leader in international aid and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its Gross National Income in 2004.

Japan's relationship with its neighbors, however, can be described as tenuous at best. It currently has territorial disputes with Russia over the Kuril Islands, with South Korea over Dokdo (Takeshima), with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands (Diaoyutai Islands), and with the People's Republic of China over the status of Okinotori. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas.

In recent years, Japan has had an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and nuclear weapons program.

Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan that states that, "The Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes." Thus, Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military force to wage war against other countries.

Japan's military is primarily consisted of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. Its military budget is estimated to be the sixth largest in the world at around $48 billion per year. The forces have been recently used peacekeeping operations and Japan's recent deployment of non-combat troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.

Geography and climate

Satellite image of Japan

Main article: Geography of Japan

Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Naha in the Ryukyu archipelago is over 600 kilometers (375 mi) to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the archipelago.

Japan is the 19th most densely populated country in the world. About 70 to 80 percent of the country is forested, mountainous ,and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas.

Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes include the 2004 Chuetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:

• Hokkaido: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
• Sea of Japan: On Honshu's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon.
• Central Highlands: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
• Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chugoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
• Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
• Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.

The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.

Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryukyu and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.

Administrative subdivisions

This map shows the prefectures of Japan.

Main article: Prefectures of Japan

Japan has 47 prefectures. The prefecture is the largest administrative subdivision. Each has an elected governor and legislature, and an administrative bureaucracy.

The prefectures are often grouped into regions. Those regions are not formally specified, they do not have elected officials, nor are they corporate bodies.

This table shows a commonly accepted example of organization of prefectures into regions, from north to south.

Region	Prefectures
Hokkaidō	Hokkaidō
Tōhoku	Akita, Aomori, Fukushima, Iwate, Miyagi, Yamagata
Kantō	Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, Tochigi, Tokyo
Chūbu	Aichi, Fukui, Gifu, Ishikawa, Nagano, Niigata, Shizuoka, Toyama, Yamanashi
Kansai	Hyōgo, Kyoto, Mie, Nara, Osaka, Shiga, Wakayama
Chūgoku	Hiroshima, Okayama, Shimane, Tottori, Yamaguchi
Shikoku	Ehime, Kagawa, Kōchi, Tokushima
Kyūshū	Fukuoka, Kagoshima, Kumamoto, Miyazaki, Nagasaki, Oita, Saga
Okinawa	Okinawa

The prefectures are further subdivided into cities, towns and villages. The nomenclature is different in the former city of Tokyo, which is divided into 23 cities known as the special wards (the part of Tokyo outside the 23 special wards uses the nationwide terminology for cities, towns, and villages). Cities (including special wards of Tokyo), towns, and villages have elected officials. In addition, major cities are divided into wards. These wards, however, are not corporate entities.

Japan is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns, and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions, and is expected to cut administrative costs. The Japanese government is also considering a plan by which several groups of prefectures would merge, creating a sub-national administrative division system consisting of 9, 11, or 13 states, and giving the states more local autonomy than the current prefectures enjoy.

Economy

10 yen coin (obverse) showing Phoenix Hall of Byōdō-in

Main article: Economy of Japan

Japan is a major economic global power. Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become one of the largest economies in the world. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the global economy.

However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rate of the US and European Union during the same period. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue in 2006.

Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu; the powerful enterprise unions and shuntō; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.

The current government of Junichiro Koizumi has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future.

Exports

Tokyo is Japan's financial center.

Exporting of goods is an essential part of the Japanese economy. It's main export partners are: US 22.7%, China 13.1%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 7.4%, Hong Kong 6.3% (as of 2004)

Japan's main exports:

• Transport equipment
• Motor vehicles
• Semiconductor
• Electrical machinery
• Chemicals

Imports

As a nation that relies heavily on international trade, Japan also imports a wide variety of goods. It's main import partners are: China 20.7%, US 14%, South Korea 4.9%, Australia 4.3%, Indonesia 4.1%, Saudi Arabia 4.1%, UAE 4% (as of 2004)

Japan's main imports:

• Machinery and equipment
• Beef
• Fuel
• Foodstuff
• Chemical
• Textiles
• Raw materials

Industrial sector

ASIMO robot at Expo 2005 in Japan

Industry, one-fourth of Japan's GDP, depends heavily on imported raw materials and fuels. Japan is among world's largest and technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical, textiles, and processed foods and is home to some of the largest and most well-known multinational corporations and commercial brands. Such corporations and brands include Toyota Motor Corporation, Sharp Corporation, Yamaha Corporation, Honda Motor Company, Nissan Motor Company, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, Mazda Motor Corporation, Sony Corporation, Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.,Ltd., NEC Corporation, Toshiba Corporation, Suzuki Motor Corporation, Nintendo Company Limited, Seiko Epson Corporation, JVC Ltd., Bridgestone Corporation, Casio Computer Co., Ltd., Citizen Watch Co., Ltd, Fujtisu Ltd., Isuzu Motors Ltd., Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Komatsu Limited, Olympus Corporation, Sanyo Electric Co. Ltd, Roland Corporation, and Hitachi, Ltd. among others that are all Japanese, as well as household names like Nikon Corporation and Canon Inc.. Japan holds a very large market share in high-technology industries such as semiconductors, industrial chemicals, machine tools, media and (in recent years) aerospace. Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. These industries make Japan a major economic global power. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength.

See also: List of Japanese companies

Science and technology

Japan is a leading nation in scientific research and the production of innovative technological products. Some of the most important industrial contributions include chemicals, electronics, entertainment, and optics. It is also one of the leading nations in health care and medical research.

Agricultural sector

Main article: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan

File:Suburban Rice Fields.jpg

Suburban rice fields.

Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. Japanese agriculture has one of the world's highest levels of productivity per unit area. Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America.

Imported rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 7.2% of average rice consumption in between 1968 and 1988 Imports beyond the quota are unrestricted in legal terms, but subject to a 341 yen per kilogram tariff. This tariff is now estimated at 490%, but the rate will soar to a massive 778% under new calculation rules to be introduced as part of the Doha Round. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat.

Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch , prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling.

Service sector

File:Tokyo stock exchange.gif

Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest in the world by monetary volume.

Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries such as Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group, Inc., Toyota Financial Group, Inc., Nomura Group, Inc., Mizihu Financial Group, Inc., Japan Post, All Nippon Airways Co.,Ltd., Nippon Tel & Tel (NTT DoCoMo) counting as one of the largest companies in the world. The Koizumi government is attempting to privatize Japan Post, The Tokyo Electric Power Company, one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services by 2007.

Infrastructure

Japan is unique in that its electric power transmission runs at different frequencies in different parts of the country - 50 Hz in Tokyo and elsewhere east of the Fuji River, 60 Hz in Osaka and other parts west. It has 1,177,278 km paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km railways as of 2004.

Society

Demographics

Shibuya Crossing is one of the largest pedestrian crossings and shopping areas.

Main article: Demographics of Japan

Japanese society is linguistically, though not ethnically, homogeneous with small populations of primarily Ryukyuans (1.5 million), North and South Koreans (0.6 million), Chinese and Taiwanese (0.5 million), Filipinos (0.5 million), and Brazilians (250,000). Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryukyuans, and social minority group like burakumin. Japanese citizenship is conferred jus sanguinis, and monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.

Japan has the highest life expectancy in the world: 85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002. However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a postwar baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the 20th century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the public pension plan.

If Japan's birth rate remains at the current level, its population is expected to peak at 127.740 million in 2006 and then begin to decline. At current birth and death rates, the population is expected to drop to 100 million persons in 2050, and to 64 million persons in 2100. Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.

See also: Ethnic issues in Japan

Religion

File:Toshodaiji-1.jpg

The Toshodaiji Buddhist temple, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Nara.

Main article: [[:Religion in Japan]]

The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to mythology, traditions, and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes Confucianism, or even Taoism, tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. When asked to identify their religion, most (84%) would profess to believe both Shintoism and Buddhism according to the CIA World Factbook. This is for simple reasons; like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. Nonetheless, most of the people are not atheists, and the tendency is often identified with syncretism, secularism, and even irreligion. This results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority profess to Christianity (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism, Islam, and Hinduism. Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called shinkoshukyo, and later shinshukyo, emerged.

See also: Japanese mythology

Education

File:Tokyo University Akamon 2004-11-16.jpg

The Akamon (Red Gate) at the University of Tokyo.

Main article: Education in Japan

Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the Meiji Restoration. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and 96% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution.

Public health

Main article: Health care in Japan

In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.

Language

Main article: Japanese language

日本語 (Japanese language)

The Japanese language is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. There is no consensus on what, if any, relationship Japanese has with other languages, but scholars continue to research the issue.

Japanese incorporates many foreign elements. Much as English has borrowed learned vocabulary from Latin, Japanese has borrowed or derived significant amounts of vocabulary from Chinese. When foreign words are written in Japanese, they are usually done so in a separate alphabet called katakana. Japanese also has extensive borrowings from English. The writing system uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified forms of Chinese characters), as well as the Roman alphabet and Hindu-Arabic numerals.

Japan's official language is Japanese, and about 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language. The Ryukyuan languages, the other member of the Japonic language family, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children are learning these languages now. Ainu, the language of the indigenous minority, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido. Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.

Due its complex writing system, Japanese is often seen as a difficult language to learn. However, its tonal and grammatical regularity mean that it is actually quite possible for anyone to speak it. In stark contrast to European languages, Japanese has only four irregular verbs, no articles, a rigid system of pluralization and no explicit future tense. As a language it is entirely removed from Chinese, but bears a passing grammatical resemblance to Korean, which is widely believed to be its sole lingual relation.

Culture

A Japanese traditional dancer

Main article: Culture of Japan

Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America.

Historically, China and Korea has been the most influential starting with the development of the Yayoi culture from around 300 BC and culminating with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, the Chinese writing system, and Mahayana Buddhism by the 7th century AD.

Shigeru Miyamoto, the creator of Donkey Kong, Mario, and Legend of Zelda video games.

Beginning in the Heian period, Japan developed a distinct culture of its own. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji, written in the early 11th century, is the world's first known novel. Japanese civilization flourished during this time and a refined sensibility and interest in the arts began to set in. Traditional Japanese arts include: crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, onsen, sento, tea ceremony, budo, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine (donburi, mochi, ramen, sushi, tempura, udon).

From the mid-19th century onward, Western influence prevailed, with American influence becoming especially predominant following the end of World War II. This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950-onward, American influences.

Today, Japan is a major exporter of its own popular culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in other East Asian countries and some areas of the United States. Many Japanese have also achieved international acclaim in fashion, film, literature, television, and music. Two Japanese writers have won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Emerging and growing trends in Japanese culture include some of the highest-quality video games and game consoles, as well as a wide variety of graphic novels (manga) and animated films (anime) with distinctive artistic styles imitated the world over. As a result, many aspects of Japanese popular culture have attracted many devotees in Europe and North America.

See also: Japanese clothing, Etiquette of Japan, Japanese festivals, Japanese New Year, Japanese sports, Tourism in Japan, Japanese media, Cinema of Japan, and Japanese traditional dance

Sports and recreation

File:JapanSumoMatch.jpg

Sumo is a traditional Japanese sport

Main article: Japanese sports

Sumo is considered Japan's national sport and is one of its most popular. In the 8th century AD, Emperor Shomu (724-749) held lavish tournaments where the best wrestlers in the country competed before hundreds. Professional sumo can trace its roots back to the Edo period as a form of sporting entertainment. Today, six major tournaments are held every year in Japan, each one lasting 15 days. Three are held in Tokyo (January, May, and September) and one each in Osaka (March), Nagoya (July), and Fukuoka (November). The highest rank for a wrestler in sumo is yokozuna.

Beginning in the 12th century, Japan developed traditional martial arts known as budo, which were popular among the warrior class. These include judo, karate, kendo, and others. Judo has been recognized as an official event in the Olympic Games since the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. It is also one of the four main forms of amateur competitive wrestling practiced internationally today.

After the Meiji Restoration, various kinds of Western sports were introduced into Japan. Baseball arrived in 1872 and during the 1870s, track and field events, football, rugby, and ice skating were introduced. In 1911, an Austrian gave skiing instruction to the Japanese army. In those days, Western sports were played by few people, but through the educational system they spread throughout the country. Western sports were initially stressed as a form of mental discipline, but Japanese have now come to enjoy them as recreational activities.

Today, baseball is the most popular spectator sport in Japan, followed by (in no particular order) football, rugby, golf, badminton, table tennis, car racing, and fishing.

Japanese board games include a form of chess, known as shogi. Go is also widely popular in the country.

Each year, Japan observes the second Monday in October as a national holiday called Health and Sports Day. The date, originally October 10, commemorates the opening day of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Other major sporting events that Japan has hosted include the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano. It also co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.

References

• S. N. Eisenstadt, Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View, University of Chicago 1995. (ISBN 0226195589)
• Japan a Profile of Nation, Kodansha International, 1999. (ISBN 4770023847)
• The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529)
• De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0844283169)
• Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701)
• Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349)
• Japan At A Glance, Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805)
• Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?, W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502)
• Lonely Planet Japan, Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623)
• Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742)
• Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255)
• Totman, A History of Modern Japan, 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591)
• Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023)

Miscellaneous topics

Topic	Article
History	Paleolithic, Jomon, Yayoi, Yamato, Nara, Heian, Kamakura, Muromachi, Azuchi-Momoyama, Edo, Meiji, Taishō, Shōwa, Heisei
Government & Politics	Emperor (list), Prime Minister (list), Cabinet, Ministries, National Diet, House of Councillors, House of Representatives, Judicial system, Elections, Political parties, Fiscal policy, Foreign policy, Foreign relations, Human rights, Military of Japan
Geography	Environment, Regions, Prefectures, Cities, Districts, Towns, Villages, Addresses, Islands, Lakes, Rivers
Economy	Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, Manufacturing, Labor, Communications, Transportation, Currency, Bank of Japan
Society	Demographics, Religion, Mythology, Education, Language, Culture

External links

Official

• Courts.go.jp - Official site of the Japanese Supreme Court
• Encyclopaedia Britannica's Japan portal site
• Kantei.go.jp - Official prime ministerial and cabinet site
• Kunaicho.go.jp - Official site of the Imperial family.
• Links to Ministries and other Organizations
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Detailed papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life.
• Sangi-in.go.jp - Official site of the House of Councillors
• Shugi-in.go.jp - Official site of the House of Representatives
• Stat.go.jp - Statistics Bureau Home Page (English)
• jnto.go.jp - Japan National Tourist Organization (English)

Media

• NHK Online
• Crisscross News Japan
• Kyodo News
• 3Yen (News blog)

Other

• CIA World Factbook - Japan
• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Japan
• electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies
• Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Japan
• Library of Congress - Country Study: Japan data as of January 1994
• Urban Employment Areas in Japan (Metropolitan Areas in Japan)
• Japan main cities satellite views
• Template:Wikitravel