Sniper rifle

File:040521-M-1012W-013usmc.jpg

US Marine Corps sniper team, with a bolt-action M40 Sniper Rifle (2004). Note the spotter with the spotting scope behind the sniper

USMC A semi-automatic U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle during a training exercise. Visible in this photo is a flash hider, a bipod (unused and folded), a scope, a rucksack used to steady the stock of the rifle while firing from a prone position. Also visible is a spotter and his binoculars

A sniper rifle is a somewhat vague class of rifle purpose-built or customized for the selective engagement of targets from a skillfully concealed position.

There is usually very little distinction between rifles used for sniping, and rifles used for any other activity that requires a moderate degree of reliability and accuracy. Most civilian bolt action rifles, including obsolete antiques, can be used for sniping with little or no modification. This article will focus on aspects of rifles that are well-suited for sniping, with some specific information on important models of sniper rifles.

History

See also: sniper

The military role of sniper dates back hundreds of years, but the sniper rifle is a much more recent development. Advances in technology, specifically that of telescopic sights and more accurate manufacturing allowed armies to equip specially trained soldiers with rifles that would enable them to deliver precise shots over greater distances than regular infantry. The rifle itself could be a standard (at first typically a bolt-action rifle), but fitted with a telescopic sight it would become a sniper rifle.

Only since the beginning of the First World War have specially adapted sniper rifles come to the fore and during the Second World War armies on all sides had specially trained snipers equipped with special sniper rifles.

Examples of rifles fitted with telescopic sights to serve as sniper rifles in Second World War:

• Karabiner 98k (K98k) (Germany)
• Mosin-Nagant (Russia)
• Springfield 1903 rifle (US)
• Type 97 Sniper Rifle (Japan)
• Lee-Enfield (Britain)

Capabilities

When examined individually, the capabilities of a sniper rifle may not seem unique, or even particularly extraordinary compared to other types of firearms. In some categories where a sniper rifle is commonly thought to excel, the sniper rifle may actually be inferior to the weapons the sniper rifle is expected to compete with.

However, the seeming disadvantages of a sniper rifle, such as slow rate of fire, can become advantages due to the stealthy manner in which the sniper rifle is employed.

When taken as a whole, the subtle advantages possessed by a sniper rifle can allow a sniper to dominate an enemy who possesses far greater fighting capability. However, since sniping is a specialized role, it must be noted that the success of a sniper depends more on the level of skills and training of the sniper than on the particular rifle used, especially when faced with opponents trained to deal with snipers.

Accuracy

Contrary to popular belief, sniper rifles are not necessarily characterized by exceptional accuracy, especially when compared to civilian sporting rifles, though they nearly always match or exceed the capabilites of other types of rifles in the military and police categories.

US Military standards call for only 1 MOA accuracy from a standard issue sniper rifle, since accuracy is sacrificed in favor of low cost and reliability in harsh environments, as well as ease of care, operation, and maintenance.

Although accuracy standards for police rifles do not widely exist, they are frequently seen with accuracy levels from 1.5 MOA, to as high as .5 MOA - and occasionally as high as .25 MOA in the most expensive models.

However, it is interesting to note that in the realm of police usage, average, or even below average accuracy is usually all that is technically required. This is because police typically employ their rifles at very short ranges. At 70 meters or less, nearly any inexpensive rifle with a relatively low accuracy of only 1 MOA should be able to repeatedly hit a 1 inch target. One inch is approximately the size of a man's thumb, which is smaller than the brain stem, the most prized target of a police sniper.

Even though very little accuracy is technically required of police rifles under ordinary circumstances, when possible police agencies will prefer to buy more expensive rifles with capabilities beyond what is normally needed. While this choice may seem excessive on technical grounds, it does give police credibility under public scrutiny - Employing the highest quality equipment bolsters public confidence in the ability of police to handle any situation.

List of typical accuracies, for comparison:

• A common pistol may be capable of between 15 MOA and 30 MOA accuracy
• A military issue battle rifle or assault rifle is usually capable of between 3 MOA and 6 MOA accuracy
• Civilian or police semi-automatic rifles are typically capable of less than 1 MOA to 4 MOA accuracy
• A common hunting rifle may be capable of .5 to 3 MOA accuracy
• A police sniper rifle is typically capable of .25 to 1.5 MOA accuracy
• A standard issue military sniper rifle is typically capable of .5 to 1 MOA accuracy
• A competition target rifle may be capable of accuracy levels of .1 MOA or better
• Rifles designed for scientific testing of ammunition may be so accurate that sophisticated computer equipment is required to measure their accuracy

Maximum Effective Range

Sniper rifles are sometimes characterized as having exceptionally great range capability, compared to other small arms, but this is not necessarily true.

For example, police snipers usually employ their rifles at very short ranges, frequently under 50 meters, which is within the range of common pistols. In police sniping, not only is long range generally not required, but it is frequently not even desired, especially if there are innocent bystanders further beyond the intended target.

Unlike police sniper rifles, military sniper rifles tend to be employed at the greatest possible distances so that range advantages, if any, can be exploited. Machine guns, battle rifles, counter-sniper rifles, designated marksman rifles, and sometimes even mass-fire from several assault rifles can reach or even greatly exceed the range of a sniper rifle.

The most popular military sniper rifles (in terms of the numbers in service) are chambered for some type .30 caliber ammunition, such as 7.62 × 51 mm NATO (.308 Winchester), or similar. Since sniper rifles of this class must compete with several other types of military weapons with similar range, snipers invariably must employ skilled fieldcraft to conceal their exact positions, and avoid being killed.

The recent trend in specialized military sniper rifles is towards larger calibers that have greater range, such as .338 Lapua and .50 BMG. This allows snipers to take fewer risks, and spend less time finding concealment, when facing enemies that are not equipped with similar weapons.

Approximate maximum effective ranges of common ammunition when used in a sniper rifle. Lower figures are typical, higher figures are under ideal conditions:

• 5.56 x 45 mm NATO - 400m to 600m
• .243 Winchester - 600m
• 7.62 × 51 mm NATO - 800m to 1000m
• .300 Winchester Magnum - 900m to 1100m
• .338 Lapua - 1200m to 1500m
• .50 BMG - 1500m to possibly 2000m

Range vs. Accuracy

A 1 MOA 7.62 × 51 mm sniper rifles's small target circle at 800m and a single bullet strike

A 6 MOA 7.62 × 51 mm machine gun's large target circle at 1100m and multiple bullet strikes

Sniper rifles are considered ineffective beyond the distance at which the bullet impact point is no longer guaranteed to be within a target circle smaller than the target on the first shot. In other words, if the range is slightly too great, the bullet is not guaranteed to strike within the target circle, leading to the possibility that a miss could occur that might endanger the sniper's mission, and perhaps even the sniper's life. At such ranges, other small arms may be preferred over sniper rifles, even though the situation may otherwise be an ideal job for a sniper rifle.

A machine gun using the same ammunition as a sniper rifle can be effective far beyond the range of a sniper rifle, due to lower accuracy requirements for effective use. For example, in counter-sniper roles a sniper might spot a target that is out of range for a sniper rifle, and so the sniper may need to call upon a machine gunner to attack it.

Here is a simplified example to illustrate why, counterintuitively, a less accurate weapon of the same caliber may actually have a greater effective range than a sniper rifle:

For human targets in military sniping, snipers do not aim at the person, instead they aim at a target circle on the person. The circle is typically about 8 inches in diameter, corresponding to an imaginary circle on the vital area of a man's chest. For a 7.62 × 51 mm NATO (.308 Winchester) sniper rifle capable of 1 MOA accuracy, the maximum effective range - the range at which the bullet impact point is guaranteed to be within an 8 inch circle on the first shot - is about 800 meters.

In contrast, a 7.62 × 51 mm NATO machine gun with a low accuracy of only 6 MOA will typically have a greater maximum effective range of about 1100 meters. At that range and accuracy, a machine gun will have a large target circle of about 6.6 meters. The machine gun's target circle is much larger than the human target due to it's rapid fire capability, which allows a machine gun to strike with 1 or more hits and numerous misses at random locations within the target circle.

While a machine gun's large target circle means that it's range can be longer than a sniper rifle's, the corresponding disadvantage is that the machine gun may need to fire dozens, and perhaps hundreds of rounds before scoring a hit.

Features

Sniper rifle features can vary widely depending on the specific tasks the sniper rifle is intended to perform. Features that may distinguish a sniper rifle from other weapons are:

• The presence of a telescopic sight
• The caliber is usually more capable, with greater range and accuracy
• Bolt-action or semi-automatic actions, which are largely obsolete in military weapons.
• Fitted with a suppressor, especially if small caliber such as .22 Long Rifle
• Stock designed for firing from a prone position
• Overall weapon length is unusually long
• The range of accessories carried with the rifle

Telescopic sight

File:040521-M-1012W-014usmc.jpg

Looking through telescopic sight

Main article: telescopic sight

A telescopic sight allows a person to see farther by virtue of the magnified image it offers and therefore aim the rifle more accurately. Most telescopic lenses employed in military or police roles have special markings to aid the shot with the judgement of distance which is an important factor in accurate shot placement (due the curved trajectory of a bullet's path).

Caliber

Due to logistical concerns, sniper rifles are usually limited to suitable rifle cartridges commonly used by the respective armies.

Before the introduction of the 7.62 × 51 mm NATO in the 1950s, standard military calibers utilized were the .30-06 Springfield (US), .303 British (Britain) and 7,92 x 57 mm (8mm Mauser) (Germany). The .30-06 Springfield in fact continued in service with US Marine Corps snipers during the Vietnam War well after general adoption of the slightly weaker 7.62 × 51 mm. One such Marine sniper, Carlos Hathcock, is one of the most famous modern snipers.

In the West and NATO the current choice is almost exclusively for 7.62 × 51 mm NATO (.308 Winchester) over the weaker 5.56 x 45 mm NATO. Other standard military calibers also employed by some armies include the much more powerful .50 calibre (12.7 mm)).

For Russia and subsequently the Soviet block the most suitable military cartridge in widespread use has been the 7.62 x 54 mm R which is of similar performance to the 7.62 × 51 mm NATO. This cartridge was introduced in 1891 and both Russian sniper rifles of the modern era, the Mosin-Nagant and the Dragunov (SVD), are chambered for it.

Certain commercial cartridges designed without the logistical constraints of most armies and only performance in mind have also gained popularity in the 1990s, these include the .338 Lapua and .300 Winchester Magnum. These cartridges outperform 7.62 × 51 mm NATO in terms of effective range and ballistic performance. Though they are not as powerful as the .50 calibre, they also don't suffer any weight penalty as is the case for rifles chambered for the .50 calibre and as such they offer a significant improvement over rifles chambered for the 7.62 × 51 mm NATO.

Action

File:RackandchamberM40A3.jpg

A Marine extracts and chambers a new round in his Remington 700 bolt-action M40A3 sniper rifle

A U.S. Army soldier peers through a scope mounted atop his accurized semi-automatic M14 rifle (possibly an M21 rifle) rifle during operations in Iraq

The choice between bolt-action and semi-automatic is usually determined by specific requirements of the sniper's role as envisioned in a particular organization with each design having advantages and disadvantages.

For a given cartridge, a bolt-action rifle has the following advantages:

• Cheaper to build and cheaper to maintain
• More accurate since there are no moving parts
• Longer effective range since no gas is utilized in operating the action
• Better stealth since there are no ejected cases or noisy moving parts
• More versatile fire-positioning since there is no need for a large magazine
• More reliable, with fewer components that may fail or become jammed
• Lighter weight, once again due to fewer components

For semi-automatic actions, the following advantages are available:

• Cross-purpose use as both a battle rifle and a sniper rifle
• Greater volume of fire when needed in a suppressing support role
• Faster followup shots (important in law enforcement)

A bolt-action is the most commonly used in both military and police sniper rifles due to it's more numerous advantages over a semi-automtics.

In military usage, bolt-actions are used almost exclusively. Anti-materiel applications such as mine clearing and special forces actions see higher usage of semi-automatics.

A semi-automatic designated marksman rifle (DMR) is less specialized than a typical military sniper rifle, often only intended to extend the range of a group of soldiers, and so when a semi-automatic action is used it is due to it's ability to cross-over into roles similar to the roles of standard issue weapons. There may also be additional logistics advantages if the DMR uses to same ammunition as the more common standard issue weapons. These rifles enable a higher volume of fire, but sacrifice some long range accuracy. They are frequently built from existing selective fire battle rifles or assault rifles.

In police usage, even in situations where a semi-automatic may seem to have advantages, a police force may instead prefer to employ several snipers armed with bolt-action rifles, rather than only one sniper armed with a semi-automatic. This operational decision will allow the individual snipers to devote more attention to the careful placement of each shot.

A police semi-automatic sniper rifle may be used in a fast moving raid, or in an uncontrolled situation that will require the sniper to engage multiple targets in quick succession. These rifles tend to be used comparatively rarely due to the danger that a faster-firing semi-automatic may present to innocent bystanders. The flight time of the bullet combined with the limited field of view of a sniper peering through a scope may allow an innocent victim to cross into a bullet's path, similar to what happened in the Ruby Ridge Incident.

Barrel

Military sniper rifles tend to have longer barrels of around 23.5 inches (600 mm) to allow the cartridge propellant to fully burn and get the highest bullet velocity. This also reduces muzzle-flash, helping to keep the sniper concealed. Some police sniper rifles have shorter barrels to make them easier to handle. The shorter ranges at which police operate permit lower bullet velocities. The effect of barrel length on accuracy is negligible.

Suppressor

Main article: Suppressor

Stock

File:Usmc kabul DMR sighting.jpg

USMC DMR showing adjustable cheek piece.

The most common special feature of a sniper rifle stock is the adjustable cheek piece where the shooter's cheek meets the rear of the stock. For most rifles equipped with a telescopic sight it is necessary to have this area raised slightly, because the telescope is higher than iron sights and a rifle shooter should steady his cheek against a rifle while aiming. A cheek piece is simply a section of the stock that can be adjusted up or down to the correct height to suit the individual shooter. To further aid this individual fitment, the stock can sometimes also be adjust for length, often by varying the number of butt pad inserts at the rear of the stock where it meets the shooter's shoulder.

A permanently fixed or removable bipod attached to the rifle's front stock (forend) is another non-standard, but critical piece of equipment. It acts as a steady and level object on which to rest the rifle which aids in accuracy.

Accessories

Almost all modern sniper rifles are used in conjunction with accessories that are specifically designed for sniping, and so the type of accessories used will usually differentiate a rifle intended to be used for sniping from other nearly identical rifles. Namely, differences will be seen in the types of stocks, sights, and carrying gear used.

Accurizing and Maintenance

Template:Sectcleanup In the case of rifles designed specifically for sniping the same procedures or techniques applied to any rifle to achieve long range accuracy is used. Some of these techniques are described in the article on accurizing a firearm and could include the following:

• A "free-floating barrel" where the barrel is attached to the rifle at a single point, screwed into the action without touching the stock.
• Heavier barrels to increase the resonant frequency (again) and slow the rate of heating, which reduces thermal distortion of the barrel as more rounds are shot. This also increases the weight of the rifle, thus reducing the felt recoil.
• Fluting on heavier barrels help maintain the desired characteristics of a heavy barrel, but reduces the weight of the barrel.
• The end of the barrel may be counter-sunk a few millimetres to protect the critical exit-end of the rifling from damage.

When standard rifles are adapted for use as a sniper rifle common improvements on the action or internals include:

• Polishing the trigger sear to improve the feel of the trigger pull and therefore the shooter's trigger control.
• A low-mass (often titanium) hammer and firing pin reduce the time between the trigger pull and the primer ignition (called lock time). By reducing this time between the trigger being pulled and the bullet release, it reduces the distance that a human being's irreducible quiver can move the point of aim.

Categories

Anti-materiel rifles

These rifles also tend to be semi-automatic, but are distinct enough to be classified as a different. These rifles are of a larger caliber like .50 calibre (12.7 mm)) or even 20 mm and designed to be used against materiel targets such as vehicles or building, but can obviously also be used against personnel. Most designs are not portable by a single person, or if they are, they heavily restrict the amount of equipment such a person can carry. Therefore they are seldom deployed by a single person but more often by 2- or 3-member teams.

Typical examples include:

• M107 (US)
• Denel NTW-20 (South African, in 20 mm or 14.5 mm)

Examples of sniper rifles

Main article: List of sniper rifles

Bolt-action

• M24 SWS standard issue of the US Army - adapted from Remington 700
• M40 standard issue of the US Marine Corps - adapted from Remington 700
• Accuracy International Arctic Warfare (AW), in service with:
  • Britain as L96A1
  • Sweden as Psg 90
  • Germany as Scharfschützengewehr 22 (G22)

Semi-automatic

• Dragunov (SVD) - purpose built
• M21 (adapted from M14 rifle)
• U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle - adapted from M14 rifle
• US Army Squad Designated Marksman Rifle (SDM-R) - adapted from M16 rifle
• US Marine Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle (SAM-R) - adapted from M16 rifle

Further reading

• Tobias, Ronald (1981). They Shoot to Kill: A Psycho-History of Criminal Sniping. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 0873642074.
• De Haas, Frank (1995). Bolt Action Rifles. Krause Publications. ISBN 0873491688.

See also

• Accurize
• List of sniper rifles
• Sniper
• Soviet sniper
• Designated marksman

External links

• Mel's SniperCentral List of Sniper Rifles
• Sniper World
• Ultimate Sniper
• Ruger .22 Caliber Sniper Rifle - Article on it's use by the Israeli military