Quakers

The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers or Friends, is a religious community founded in England during the 17th century. Quakers are counted among the historic Peace churches and have congregations scattered across the world. Since its origins in England, Quakerism has spread to other countries, chiefly the United States, Kenya and Bolivia. The number of Quakers in the world is rather small (approximately 600,000).

History

The founder of the Religious Society of Friends was George Fox, who believed that direct experience with God was available to all people, without any mediation. Friends have often expressed this belief by referring to "that of God in Everyone", "inner light", "inner Christ", "the spirit of Christ within", and many other terms.

Fox felt a call to the ministry in 1644, and began preaching publicly in 1648. At that time, Puritanism was predominant in England under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, but religious and political dissent were increasing. Fox was a highly vocal dissenter, as he considered many of the religious practices of the time to be inconsistent with Christian faith. In particular, he rejected the notion of a paid priesthood and of governmentally sanctioned church buildings (which he derided as "steeple-houses"), believing instead that everyone can be a minister and that any worshipful gathering of Christians is equally legitimate. Thus, traditional Quaker worship had no individual in charge of conducting a planned service; instead, worshippers gathered in silence, which was only interrupted when someone in attendance felt moved by the Spirit to speak. Fox also believed the Puritans were wrong to regard literal reading of Scripture as a higher authority than personal experience of the divine, quoting Paul's statement in 2 Corinthians that "the letter killeth, but the Spirit giveth life."

He began his career by speaking in outdoor public places and in congregations, sometimes resulting in abuse and imprisonment, especially when he burst into "steeple-houses" to denounce the sermons therein (something he continued to do throughout his life). From 1652 onward Fox was closely associated with an earlier very loosely organized movement of religious dissenters, the Seekers. Seekers had few guiding principles except for a dissatisfaction with established religion that was similar to Fox's critique; they had discarded all ceremony of worship and begun the practice of silent meetings which, as Fox rapidly gained followers among the Seekers, became the practice of Friends.

Fox was equally critical of many aspects of English culture besides religious dogma, particularly those that he saw as symptoms of pride and misuse of authority. He saw violence as a corrupting force no matter how noble the goal, and saw Cromwell's military takeover of church and state as a grave spiritual error. Fox believed that the proper response to injustice was neither violence nor acquiescence, but peaceful non-cooperation. Fox's criticisms of his society were similar to those of the Seekers, Ranters, and Levellers, and he drew followers from all of these groups (as well as from dissatisfied members of Cromwell's movement), but differed from them in his urgent call for a revival of what he saw as original Christian faith and practice, based on obedience to God, mutual support, and public resistance to injustice. Early Friends drew many parallels between themselves and the earliest Christians, seeing the Puritans as analogous to the Pharisees.

Starting in the late 19th century, some Quakers have adopted the use of paid pastors and have included a planned sermon, hymns and other elements of Protestant worship services. This type of Quaker worship is known as the "programmed meeting". Worship of the more traditional Quaker variety is called an "unprogrammed meeting", although there is some variation on how the unprogrammed meetings adhere strictly to the lack of programming. Some unprogrammed meetings may have also allocated a period of hymn-singing or other activity as part of the total period of worship, while others maintain the tradition of avoiding all planned activities. Unprogrammed meetings do not have a paid pastor; the leadership role is normally taken up by a committee called either ministry and oversight or ministry and counsel, which handles the pastoral care and religious oversight portion of a pastor's role, and a clerk, who is responsible for many administrative duties as well as coordinating the monthly meetings. Both clerkship and committee service are unpaid positions accepted by meeting members for a fixed period of time.

Quaker Worship

There are two typically types of worship that Friends participate in termed Programmed Worship and Unprogrammed Worship. Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among Friends. During meeting for worship Friends gather together in expectant waiting for messages from God. They wait in silence. When a memeber feels led to share a message with the gathered meeting, they will generally raise and share. These messages often take the form of a statement, a reading, or a song. Generally meeting for worship lasts about an hour (although it can be shorter or longer depending on the group gathered).

Programmed worship grow out of the movement in 19th century toward paid pastors (see above). Worship at a Friends Church resembles more closly a typical protestant worship service in the United States. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a sermon from the pastor. Most Friends outside of the United Kingdom and the North Eastern region of the United States worship is this way.

While the two different styles of worship generally reflect the theological splits within Quakerism, with unprogrammed meetings generally being more liberal then Friends Churches, this is not a strict rule.

Friends try to treat all functions of the church as worship. Including business, marriage and memorial services. Decisions on a local level are conducted by the individual monthly meeting, in a monthly Meeting for Worship with a concern for business, or simply business meeting. A meeting for business is considered a form of worship, and all decisions must be reached in a manner that satisfies all participants (called "unity" or "sense of the meeting", but sometimes inaccurately called consensus). Quaker "consensus" does not mean that every person simply gets an equal vote, since that would mean that some members would be voting on issues they were uninformed on or less than interested in. Instead, there is "unity," where those who are informed on or passionate about a given issue are willingly deferred to. However, it is not always the same elite group which is given deference, but a shifting authority, individual to each situation. Furthermore, it is not infrequently the case that some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an issue. This means that they explicitly disagree with the current sense of the meeting, but not strongly enough to put a block on moving ahead.

Organization

Monthly Meetings are the local congredgations within unprogrammed yearly meetings. In Programed traditions they are referred to as Friends Churches. Monthly meetings hold meeting for business once a month. Monthly meetings are grouped together into Quarters. Quarters hold meeting for business quarterly and offer guidence and support to their member meetings. Two or more quarters can be gathered into a Yearly Meeting. Yearly meetings meet once a year to do business. Any member of any monthly meeting can (and are encouraged to) attend business sessions for either their monthly meetings quarter or yearly meeting.

Some Yearly Meetings belong to still larger organizations, the three chief ones are United States being Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends International (EFI). The FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while the EFI is the most conservative. FUM is the largest of the three. In addition, some monthly and yearly meetings belong to more than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent.

The Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is one of the international Quaker organizations which loosely unifies the diverse individual groups. It was set up at the 1937 World Conference of Friends in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, USA, "to act in a consultative capacity to promote better understanding among Friends the world over, particularly by the encouragement of joint conferences and intervisitation, the collection and circulation of information about Quaker literature and other activities directed towards that end." About 175 representatives, appointed by the almost 70 affiliated yearly meetings and groups, meet together every three years at Triennials, aiming to provide links among Friends. FWCC bring together the largest varity of Friends in the world.

There is also a Friends lobbying organization based in Washington, DC, Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL).

Beliefs and Practices of Early Friends

Early Quakerism was full of a sense of spiritual egalitarianism, which included a belief in the spiritual equality of the sexes—remarkable for that time. Both women and men were granted equal authority to speak in meetings for worship. George Fox's wife, Margaret Fell, was equally vocal and literate as her husband, publishing several tracts in Quakerism's early days.

This equal status extended further into the social realm, and Quakers often ignored the social distinctions of the seventeenth century. This translated into several behaviours which offended those of high rank: Friends refused to doff their hat to those of higher status ("hat honor"), and also addressed high-ranking persons using the familiar forms of "thee" and "thou", instead of the respectful "you". (Later, as "thee" and "thou" disappeared from everyday English usage, many Quakers continued to use these words as a form of "plain speech", though the original reason for this usage had disappeared; their usage was also grammatically distinctive, saying "thee is" instead of "thou art", a holdover from a dialect formerly common in the north of England. This practice is rare among Quakers today.)

Early Friends did not believe in performing any special rites or sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all the activities of one's life -- all of life was sacred. Thus they did not perform baptisms as a rite of membership, and their method of worship was considered unorthodox and heretical. Quaker marriage ceremonies were performed in the manner as worship, meaning there was no priest or high official to conduct the ceremony and sanction the union.

Early Friends also objected to the names of the days and months in the English language, because many of them referred to Roman gods and emperors. As a result, the days of the week were known as "First Day", "Second Day", and so forth. Similarly, the months of the year were "First Month", "Second Month", and so forth. Many Friend's organizations continue to use the "simple calendar" for offical records.

Testimonies

Friends believe that the Bible is the word of God as interpreted by each person. Each Friend must interpret the Bible for themselves in the light of the same Spirit that they consider to have inspired the Bible. Thus Friends believe that divine revelation is not restricted to the Bible, but rather continues even today (this doctrine is known as continuing revelation). From this interpretation a common set of beliefs emerged, which became known as testimonies. Testimonies are not formal static documents, but rather a shared collection or view of how Quakers relate to God. Testimonies cannot be taken one at a time, as they are interrelated. As a philosophical system, they are coherent, even outside of Christian theology.

While the list of testimonies, like all aspects of Friends theology, is evolving the following is a generally accepted list.

The Peace Testimony
The Testimony of Integrity
The Testimony of Equality
The Testimony of Simplicity
The Testimony of Unity with Creation (recent)
The Testimony of Living In The World (recent)

The Peace Testimony

The Peace Testimony is the most static testimony; it is also the best known testimony of Friends. Unlike most of the testimonies of Friends the Peace Testimony is associated with a specific text. The text used for the Peace Testimony came from a letter addressed to King Charles II of England in explanation of the refusal by early Friends to take up arms in the revolution lead by Oliver Cromwell in 1660. The following excerpt is often used:

We utterly deny all outward wars and strife and fighting with outward weapons for any end or under any pretence whatsoever; this is our testimony to the whole world . . . . . . . The Spirit of Christ by which we are guided is not changeable, so as once to command us from a thing of evil and again to move us into it; and we certainly know and testify to the world that the Spirit of Christ which leads us into all truth will never move us to fight and war against any man with outward weapons, neither for the Kingdom of Christ nor for the kingdoms of this world ... therefore we cannot learn war anymore. (Excerpts from a Statement by the Quakers to King Charles II - 1660)

This belief has persisted to this day, and many conscientious objectors and anti-war activists are Friends. The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) is a charitable organization that has worked for peace and social justice throughout the world. The AFSC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1947 along with the UK's Friends Service Council on behalf of all of Quakerism.

The Testimony of Integrity

Early Friends realized that an important part of the message of Jesus was how we treat our fellow human beings. They felt that honest dealing with others meant more than just not telling lies. Friends feel that it is important not to mislead others, even if the words used are all technically truthful.

Early Friends refused to swear oaths, even in courtrooms, on the theory that one must speak truth at all times, and the act of swearing to it implied otherwise. Instead, Friends giving testimony in court, or being sworn into governmental office, "affirm" that they are going to tell the truth; the U.S. Constitution guarantees this option for anyone sworn into office in the United States. As an expression of the Quaker belief that one should mean exactly what one says at all times, Quaker businessmen did not haggle over prices, believing that to ask for a higher price than one was willing to accept was dishonest; this was contrary to common practice of the time. Instead, they offered a firm, fixed price for their goods or services.

The Testimony of Equality

A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London in the 18th century

Friends believe that all people are created equal in the eyes of God. Since all people embody the same divine spark all people deserve equal treatment. Friends were some of the first to value women as important ministers. Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Lucretia Mott (leaders in the suffragette movement in the 19th century) were all Friends supported by both their husbands and their meetings. During the 1700s, Quakers felt that women were not participating fully in Meetings for Business as most women would not "nay-say" their husbands. The solution was to form two separate Meetings for Business. Many Quaker meeting houses were built with a movable divider down the middle. During Meeting for Worships, the divider was raised. During Business meetings the divider was lowered, creating two rooms. Each gender ran their own separate business meetings. Any issue which required the consent of the whole meeting - building repairs for example - would involve sending an emissary to the other meeting. This practice continued until there was no longer a concern over whether women would "nay-say" their husbands. (Some very old meetinghouses still have this divider, although it likely is nonmovable.) Friends were also leaders in the anti-slavery movement.Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (the most important yearly meeting in USA at the time) prohibited members from owning slaves in 1776, and on February 11, 1790 Friends petitioned the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery. American Friends were prominent participants in the Underground Railroad, a transportation network for sending escaped slaves to freedom. Quakers were among the first to pioneer humane treatment for the mentally ill, with The Retreat, in York England, an asylum set up by William Tuke (1732-1822) as a reaction to the harsh nature of 18th century asylum care.

The Testimony of Simplicity

Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material possessions. Friends tradiontionally limited their possesions to what they need to live their lives, rather than pursuing less necessary luxuries. In recent decades Friends have been less and less attentive to this testimony, although most still believe it is important. This testimony has been are large part of expanding into what new testimonies that were refered to above.

From today's perspective, Friends have not always followed their own testimonies. While Friends were some of the first to oppose slavery in the United States (Germantown Monthly Meeting minuted their opposition to slavery in 1733), a number of Friends owned slaves. John Woolman (1720-1772) made it his life's work to convince other Friends of the evil nature of slavery.

A number of Friends also fought during World War II, feeling that the reasons for fighting outweighed the Peace Testimony in this instance.

Modern Quaker Beliefs

Quakerism is a creedless religion. George Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists", and modern Quakerism is less concerned with theology than many other faiths are. Quakerism focuses more on faithfulness in life in the here and now than in ultimate destiny. Although Evangelical and programmed Quakerism has become more akin to Protestantism, many Quakers consider their faith neither Protestant nor Catholic, but rather an expression of a third way.

Quakerism is often termed a mystical religion, but it differs from other mystical religions in two important ways. First, its mysticism is group-oriented rather than focused on the individual. The unprogrammed Quaker meeting is an expression of that group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting can together listen for the Spirit and, ideally (in what is called a "gathered meeting") build on what the others have said in developing themes and ideas. The other way in which Quaker mysticism differs is in its outwardly directed activism. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action, and Quakers have traditionally applied their values towards working for social and political improvements.

Quakerism has always placed a great emphasis on the Inner Light as a source of inspiration. Early Friends believed in the truth of the Bible in addintion to the continuing revelation from God through Inner Light that spoke to the authors of the Bible. This tension between these two sources of theological understanding ultimately erupted in the United States, between those who placed more emphasis on the Inner Light, and those who placed more emphasis on the Bible. Friends in the United Kingdom managed to hold these trends together without dividing into separate organisations (at the time of the splits there were very few Friends outside the United States and United Kingdom).

American Quakerism has split into several branches, starting with the "Orthodox/Hicksite" schism of 1827-28. Although other factors played a role in that schism, there was a drving theological element. The "Orthodox" branch had moved closer in theology to Protestantism, while the "Hicksite" branch had moved in a liberal direction. The Orthodox branch underwent a further split in the middle of the nineteenth century between the more evangelical "Gurneyite" Quakers, and "Wilburite" Quakers who adhered to more traditional Quaker beliefs. In the midst of this split are the "Beanite" or independent Quakers, who resemble an amalgam of Hicksite and Wilburite Quakerism, some of them adopting the label "Christ-Centered Universalism".

In theology, differences among Quaker groups have widened since the initial 19th century schism. Today Quakers range the theological spectrum from conservative evangelical to liberal Christian and non-Christians. Non-Christian Quakers are usually found in the unprogrammed meetings.

One trait continued by modern Friends is taking a dim view of titles and ranks. For example, at Earlham College, a Quaker college in Richmond, Indiana, professors and administrators are addressed by their first name by students, without the use of "professor" or "doctor".

Though the practices of plain dress and speech made them known as a "peculiar people," for the most part, modern Quakers dress and speak in a manner indistinguishable from others, but some Friends do retain the use of "thee" with other Friends. Friends also use certain distinctive terms when describing their theology and practices:

Convincement - the process of a non-Friend becoming a Friend.
Birthright Friend - those Friends born into families that are members of a Friends Meeting
Speaks to my condition - directly addresses my personal understanding.
That of God in everyone - the belief of an Inner Light within all people.
Hold in the Light - think about, pray for, or hold special thoughts about another person.
"Lay down" - what you do to a committee that is no longer needed, i.e. you disband it.
"Clearness" - a process undergone to discern rightness of action

Origin of the name Quaker

There are two stories for where the name Quaker came from. The first is that it was an insult. George Fox reported in his journal that, in 1650, on one of the many times he was arrested, Justice Bennet of Derby "first called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God." The second story is that Friends were observed to tremble from the emotion of providing ministry to their meeting, and were therefore termed Quakers.