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List of presidents of the Philippines

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For colonial chief executives of the Philippines prior to the ratification of the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines, see Governor-General of the Philippines.
File:Malacañang Palace (Cropped).jpg
The Malacañang Palace in Manila is the official residence of the President of the Philippines.[n 1] Built in 1750, it has become a prominent symbol of the office.

Under the Constitution of the Philippines, the President of the Philippines (Template:Lang-fil) is both the head of state and the head of government.[4] The chief of the entire executive branch of the republican government, the President also serves as the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces. The President is directly elected by qualified voters of the population to a six-year term and must be "a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election". Election or re-election to the presidency is barred if the person "has succeeded as [p]resident and has served as such for more than four years". Upon an incumbent president's death, permanent disability, resignation, or removal from office, the Vice President assumes the post.[5]

Sixteen people have been sworn into office as president. Following the ratification of the Malolos Constitution in 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo became the inaugural president of the Malolos Republic, considered the First Philippine Republic.[n 2] He held that office until 1901 when he was captured by United States forces during the Philippine–American War.[6] The American colonization of the Philippines abolished the First Republic.[7]

In 1935 the US, pursuant to its promise of full Philippine sovereignty,[8] established the Commonwealth of the Philippines following the ratification of the 1935 Constitution, which also restored the presidency. The first national presidential election was held,[n 3] and Manuel L. Quezon (1935–44) was elected to a six-year term, with no provision for re-election, as the second Philippine president and the first Commonwealth president. In 1940, however, the Constitution was amended to allow re-election but shortened the term to four years. A change in government occurred three years later when the Second Philippine Republic was organized with the enactment of the 1943 Constitution, which Japan imposed after it occupied the Philippines in 1942 during World War II. José P. Laurel acted as puppet president of the new Japanese-sponsored government;[10] his de facto presidency,[11] not legally recognized until the 1960s,[12] overlapped with that of the president of the Commonwealth, which went into exile. The Second Republic was dissolved after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945;[i] the Commonwealth was restored in the Philippines in the same year with Sergio Osmeña (1944–46) as president.[4]

Manuel Roxas (1946–48) followed Osmeña when he won the first post-war election in 1946. He became the first president of the independent Philippines when the Commonwealth ended on July 4 of that year. The Third Republic was ushered in and would cover the administrations of the next five presidents, the last of which was Ferdinand Marcos (1965–86), who performed a self-coup by imposing martial law in 1972.[4][13] The dictatorship saw the birth of Marcos' New Society and the Fourth Republic. His tenure lasted until 1986 when he was deposed in the People Power Revolution. The current constitution came into effect in 1987, marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic.[4]

Of the individuals elected as president, three died in office: two of natural causes (Manuel L. Quezon[14] and Manuel Roxas[15]) and one on an aircraft disaster (Ramon Magsaysay (1953–57)[16]). The longest-serving president is Ferdinand Marcos with 20 years, 1 month, and 26 days in office; he is the only president to have served more than two terms. The shortest is Sergio Osmeña who spent 1 year, 9 months, and 27 days in office; he is the first Philippine vice president as well as the first to succeed to the presidency (upon the death of Quezon). The first female president of the Philippines (and of any Asian country[17]) is Corazon Aquino (1986–92). Rodrigo Duterte is the incumbent president since 2016.

Presidents

Legend

The colors indicate the political party or affiliation of each individual upon accession.

  Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (KALIBAPI)
  Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino (KAMPI)/Lakas ng Tao–Christian Muslim Democrats (Lakas–CMD)/Lakas ng Tao–National Union of Christian Democrats (Lakas–NUCD)
  Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL)
  Lapian ng Masang Pilipino (LAMP)
  Liberal Party
  Magdalo
  Nacionalista Party
  Nationalist People's Coalition (NPC)
  Partido Demokratiko Pilipino–Lakas ng Bayan (PDP–Laban)
  United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO)
  No party

1899–1901: First Republic (Malolos Republic)

President of the First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic[n 2])[19]
No.
overall 		No.
in era 		Portrait Name
(Birth–Death) 		Took office Left office Term[n 4] Party Vice President Ref.
1 1 Emilio Aguinaldo    Emilio Aguinaldo
(1869–1964) 		January 23, 1899[n 5] March 23, 1901[n 6][n 7] 1
(1899) 		Magdalo None[n 8] [22]

1935–46: Commonwealth

Presidents of the Philippine Commonwealth[19]
No.
overall 		No.
in era 		Portrait Name
(Birth–Death) 		Took office Left office Term[n 4] Party Vice President Ref.
2 1 Manuel L. Quezon width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Manuel L. Quezon
(1878–1944) 		November 15, 1935[n 9] August 1, 1944[n 10][n 11] 2
(1935) 		Nacionalista width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Sergio Osmeña [24]
width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"| 3
(1941) 		Vacant[n 12]
4[n 13] 2 Sergio Osmeña width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Sergio Osmeña
(1878–1961) 		August 1, 1944 May 28, 1946[n 14] Nacionalista [26]
5 3 Manuel Roxas width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Manuel Roxas
(1892–1948) 		May 28, 1946 April 15, 1948[n 15] 5
(1946) 		Liberal width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Elpidio Quirino [27]

1943–45: Second Republic

President of the Second Philippine Republic[19]
No.
overall 		No.
in era 		Portrait Name
(Birth–Death) 		Took office Left office Term[n 4] Party Vice President Ref.
3 1 José P. Laurel width="2%" style="background:Template:Kalibapi/meta/color;"|   José P. Laurel
(1891–1959) 		October 14, 1943[n 16] August 17, 1945[n 17][n 7] 4
(1943) 		KALIBAPI[n 18] None[n 19] [30]

1946–73: Third Republic

Presidents of the Third Philippine Republic[19][n 20]
No.
overall 		No.
in era 		Portrait Name
(Birth–Death) 		Took office Left office Term[n 4] Party Vice President Ref.
5 1 Manuel Roxas width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Manuel Roxas
(1892–1948) 		May 28, 1946 April 15, 1948[n 15] 5
(1946) 		Liberal width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Elpidio Quirino [27]
6 2 Elpidio Quirino width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"| Elpidio Quirino
(1890–1956) 		April 17, 1948 December 30, 1953 Liberal Vacant[n 12]
April 17, 1948 –
December 30, 1949 		[33]
width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   6
(1949) 		width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Fernando Lopez
December 30, 1949 –
December 30, 1953
7 3 Ramon Magsaysay width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Ramon Magsaysay
(1907–1957) 		December 30, 1953 March 17, 1957[n 21] 7
(1953) 		Nacionalista width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Carlos P. Garcia [35]
8 4 Carlos P. Garcia width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"| Carlos P. Garcia
(1896–1971) 		March 18, 1957 December 30, 1961 Nacionalista Vacant[n 12]
March 18, 1957 –
December 30, 1957 		[36]
width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   8
(1957) 		width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Diosdado Macapagal
December 30, 1957 –
December 30, 1961
9 5 Diosdado Macapagal width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Diosdado Macapagal
(1910–1997) 		December 30, 1961 December 30, 1965 9
(1961) 		Liberal width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Emmanuel Pelaez [37]
10 6 Ferdinand Marcos width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Ferdinand Marcos
(1917–1989) 		December 30, 1965 February 25, 1986[n 22] 10
(1965) 		Nacionalista rowspan="2" width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Fernando Lopez
December 30, 1965 –
September 23, 1972[n 23] 		[42]
width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   11[n 24][n 25]
(1969)
width="2%" style="background:Template:Kilusang Bagong Lipunan/meta/color;"|   12[n 26]
(1981) 		KBL None[vii][n 27]
September 23, 1972 –
February 25, 1986

1981–87: Fourth Republic

Presidents of the Fourth Philippine Republic[19][n 28]
No.
overall 		No.
in era 		Portrait Name
(Birth–Death) 		Took office Left office Term[n 4] Party Vice President Ref.
10 1 Ferdinand Marcos width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Ferdinand Marcos
(1917–1989) 		December 30, 1965 February 25, 1986[n 22] 10
(1965) 		Nacionalista rowspan="2" width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   Fernando Lopez
December 30, 1965 –
September 23, 1972[n 23] 		[42]
width="2%" style="background:Template:Nacionalista Party/meta/color;"|   11[n 24][n 25]
(1969)
width="2%" style="background:Template:Kilusang Bagong Lipunan/meta/color;"|   12[n 26]
(1981) 		KBL None[vii][n 27]
September 23, 1972 –
February 25, 1986
11 2 Corazon Aquino width="2%" style="background:Template:United Nationalist Democratic Organization/meta/color;"|   Corazon Aquino
(1933–2009) 		February 25, 1986[n 29] June 30, 1992 13
(1986) 		UNIDO width="2%" style="background:Template:United Nationalist Democratic Organization/meta/color;"|   Salvador Laurel [45]

1987–present: Fifth Republic

Presidents of the Fifth Philippine Republic[19][n 30]
No.
overall 		No.
in era 		Portrait Name
(Birth–Death) 		Took office Left office Term[n 4] Party Vice President Ref.
11 1 Corazon Aquino width="2%" style="background:Template:United Nationalist Democratic Organization/meta/color;"|   Corazon Aquino
(1933–2009) 		February 25, 1986[n 29] June 30, 1992 13
(1986) 		UNIDO width="2%" style="background:Template:United Nationalist Democratic Organization/meta/color;"|   Salvador Laurel [45]
12 2 Fidel Ramos width="2%" style="background:Template:Lakas-NUCD/meta/color;"|   Fidel Ramos
(1928–) 		June 30, 1992 June 30, 1998 14
(1992) 		Lakas–NUCD width="2%" style="background:Template:Nationalist People's Coalition/meta/color;"|   Joseph Estrada [47]
13 3 Joseph Estrada width="2%" style="background:Template:Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino/meta/color;"|   Joseph Estrada
(1937–) 		June 30, 1998 January 20, 2001[n 31][n 7] 15
(1998) 		LAMP width="2%" style="background:Template:Lakas-NUCD/meta/color;"|   Gloria Macapagal Arroyo [49]
14 4 Gloria Macapagal Arroyo width="2%" style="background:Template:Lakas-NUCD/meta/color;"|   Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
(1947–) 		January 20, 2001 June 30, 2010 KAMPI
Lakas–CMD 		Vacant[n 12]
January 20, 2001 –
February 7, 2001 		[50]
width="2%" style="background:Template:Lakas-NUCD/meta/color;"|   width="2%" style="background:Template:Lakas-NUCD/meta/color;"|   Teofisto Guingona Jr.
February 7, 2001 –
June 30, 2004
width="2%" style="background:Template:Lakas-NUCD/meta/color;"|   16
(2004) 		width="2%" style="background:Template:Independent/meta/color;"|   Noli de Castro
June 30, 2004 –
June 30, 2010
15 5 Benigno Aquino III width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Benigno Aquino III
(1960–) 		June 30, 2010 June 30, 2016 17
(2010) 		Liberal width="2%" style="background:Template:Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan/meta/color;"|   Jejomar Binay [51]
16 6 Rodrigo Duterte width="2%" style="background:Template:Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan/meta/color;"|   Rodrigo Duterte
(1945–) 		June 30, 2016 Incumbent 18
(2016) 		PDP–Laban width="2%" style="background:Template:Liberal Party (Philippines)/meta/color;"|   Leni Robredo
 [52]

Timeline

See also: List of Philippine Presidents by time in office
Rodrigo DuterteBenigno Aquino IIIGloria Macapagal ArroyoJoseph EstradaFidel RamosCorazon AquinoFerdinand MarcosDiosdado MacapagalCarlos P. GarciaRamon MagsaysayElpidio QuirinoManuel RoxasSergio OsmeñaJosé P. LaurelManuel L. QuezonEmilio Aguinaldo

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The President has three official residences, but the Malacañang Palace is the President's principal workplace.[1] The other two are the Mansion House in Baguio, the official summer residence,[2] and the Malacañang sa Sugbo (Template:Lang-eng), the official residence in Cebu.[3]
  2. ^ a b The Malolos Republic, an independent revolutionary state that is actually the first constitutional republic in Asia,[7][9] was not recognized internationally.[18] The Philippine government now acknowledges the Malolos Republic as its predecessor, which it also calls the First Philippine Republic.[9]
  3. ^ Emilio Aguinaldo, recognized as the official first president, was elected by the Malolos Congress and not by popular vote.[9]
  4. ^ a b c d e f For the purposes of numbering, a presidency is defined as an uninterrupted period of time in office served by one person. For example, Manuel L. Quezon was elected in two consecutive terms and is counted as the second president (not the second and third).[ii] Upon the death of fifth president, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino became the sixth president even though he simply served out the remainder of Roxas' term and was not elected to the presidency in his own right.
  5. ^ Term began with the formal establishment of the Malolos Republic.[iii]
  6. ^ Term ended when Aguinaldo was captured by US forces in Palanan, Isabela, during the Philippine–American War.[6][iv]
  7. ^ a b c Later sought election or re-election to a non-consecutive term.
  8. ^ The Malolos Constitution did not provide for a vice president.[21]
  9. ^ Term began with the formal establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth.[23]
  10. ^ Died, in office, of tuberculosis in Saranac Lake, New York.[14]
  11. ^ Term was originally until November 15, 1943, due to constitutional limitations as provided by the 1940 amendment of the 1935 Constitution, which allowed one re-election but shortened the term from six to four years. Quezon was not intended to serve the full four years of the second term he won in the 1941 election because a ten-year presidency would have been considered excessive. In 1943, however, due to World War II, Quezon had to take an emergency oath of office, extending his tenure.[4]
  12. ^ a b c d Prior to the ratification of the 1987 Constitution, there was no mechanism by which a vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled.[5][25] Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was the first president to fill such a vacancy under the provisions of the Constitution when she appointed Teofisto Guingona Jr.
  13. ^ See § 1943–45: Second Republic.
  14. ^ Sought an election for a full term, but was unsuccessful.
  15. ^ a b Died, in office, of a heart attack in Clark Air Base, Pampanga.[15]
  16. ^ Term began with the establishment of Japan's puppet Second Republic after it occupied the Philippines during World War II.[11] The Commonwealth continued its existence as a government in exile in Australia and the United States.[23][28] The Philippines had two concurrent presidents by this time: a de jure (the Commonwealth president) and a de facto (Laurel).[4][29] Because of his status, he was not considered a legitimate president until the 1960s.[12]
  17. ^ Term ended when he dissolved the Second Republic in the wake of Japan's surrender to the Allies during World War II.[i] The Commonwealth was re-established in the Philippines, with Sergio Osmeña as the fourth president.[4][11]
  18. ^ Previously affiliated with the Nacionalista Party,[30] but was elected by the National Assembly under the Japanese-organized KALIBAPI party. All parties were merged under Japanese auspices to form KALIBAPI, to which all officials belonged.[11][12]
  19. ^ The 1943 Constitution did not provide for a vice president.[31]
  20. ^ The Third Republic began when the Philippine Commonwealth ended on July 4, 1946.[4][32]
  21. ^ Died, in office, on a plane crash in Mount Manunggal, Cebu.[34][16]
  22. ^ a b Deposed in the People Power Revolution.[v]
  23. ^ a b Term ended upon Marcos' declaration of martial law.[21][vi]
  24. ^ a b Imposed martial law, as a self-coup, on September 23, 1972, through Proclamation No. 1081, shortly before the end of his second and final term in 1973.[vi] General Order No. 1, s. 1972, which detailed the transfer of all powers to the president, was also issued, enabling Marcos to rule by decree.[13][vii]
  25. ^ a b Served concurrently as prime minister from June 12, 1978, to June 30, 1981.[42]
  26. ^ a b The 1973 Constitution did not place restrictions on re-election.[44]
  27. ^ a b In 1984, the 1973 Constitution was amended to re-establish the vice presidency.[21]
  28. ^ Martial law was lifted by Ferdinand Marcos on January 17, 1981, through Proclamation No. 2045,[13] marking the beginning of the Fourth Republic.[32]
  29. ^ a b Assumed presidency by claiming victory in the disputed 1986 snap election.[v]
  30. ^ Corazon Aquino issued a provisional constitution called the 1986 Freedom Constitution on March 25, 1986. It remained in effect until it was supplanted by the current constitution on February 2, 1987,[46] which ushered the Fifth Republic.[4]
  31. ^ Deposed after the Supreme Court declared Estrada as resigned, and, as a result, the office of the president vacant, after the Second EDSA Revolution.[48]

Subnotes

  1. ^ a b The Second Republic was later declared by the Supreme Court of the Philippines as a de facto (illegitimate) government shortly after its abolition. Its laws were considered null and void;[4] despite this, Laurel was included in the official roster of Philippine presidents in the 1960s.[12]
  2. ^ Emilio Aguinaldo would be counted as the second president if he had won the 1935 election because the presidency was abolished and remained defunct until November 15, 1935. During that period, the executive power was exercised by the governor-general of the US-organized Insular Government, the precursor of the Philippine Commonwealth.[20]
  3. ^ The Malolos Constitution was approved by the Malolos Congress on January 20, 1899, sanctioned by Aguinaldo on January 21, and promulgated on January 22 (see items 27 and 27a in Guevara 1972). The republic was proclaimed on January 23 (see items 28, 28a and 28b in Guevara 1972).
  4. ^ Aguinaldo took the oath of allegiance to the US nine days later, effectively ending the republic.[7]
  5. ^ a b Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino both took their oath of office on February 25. In effect, the Philippines again had two simultaneous presidents, albeit for nine hours only.[38] Marcos was proclaimed on February 15 the winner of the widely denounced February 7 snap election,[38][39] which he called after opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., his chief rival and Corazon's wife, was assasinated in 1983.[40] However, in a separate NAMFREL tally that was completed on February 16, Aquino was found the actual duly-elected president.[41] The events led to the People Power Revolution on February 22–25, which forced Marcos to leave to exile in Hawaii and installed Aquino to the office.[38][40]
  6. ^ a b Accounts differ on when martial law was officially established. While sources such as Raymond Bonner have written that Proclamation No. 1081 was signed on September 23, Primitivo Mijares, a former journalist for Marcos, and the Bangkok Post stated that it was on September 17, only postdated to September 21 because of Marcos' numerological beliefs that were related to the number seven. Marcos claimed to have signed it on September 21, and as of 9 p.m. Philippine Standard Time (UTC+08:00) on September 22, the country was under martial law. He formally announced it in a live television and radio broadcast on September 23. The official date when martial law was set was on September 21 (because it was a date that was divisible by seven), but September 23 is generally considered the correct date because it was when the nation was informed and thus the proclamation was put into full effect.[13]
  7. ^ a b c On January 17, 1973, while martial law was still in effect, the 1973 Constitution was ratified, which suspended the 1935 Constitution and ended the Third Republic. What Marcos called a New Society (Bagong Lipunan) began, introducing a parliamentary form of government;[43] the vice presidency was abolished and the presidential succession provision was devolved to the prime minister.[21][32]

References

  1. ^ Ortiguero, Romsanne (October 22, 2014). "TRAVEL Inside Malacañang Complex, 3 places to visit for a charming date with history". News5. TV5. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  2. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Mansion House". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  3. ^ Sisante, Jam (August 6, 2010). "Malacañang sa Sugbo still the president's official residence in Cebu". GMA Network. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "The Executive Branch". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  5. ^ a b "The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  6. ^ a b Tucker 2009, p. 8
  7. ^ a b c National Historical Commission of the Philippines (September 7, 2012). "The First Philippine Republic". Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 17, 2016.
  8. ^ Castro 2011, p. 204
  9. ^ a b c "Araw ng Republikang Filipino, 1899". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  10. ^ no by-line. (September 3, 1945). "The Philippines: End of a Puppet". Time. Time Inc. Retrieved July 5, 2016. {{cite magazine}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ a b c d Jose, Ricardo T. "His Excellency Jose P. Laurel, President of the Second Philippine Republic: Speeches, Messages and Statements". Official Gazette. Author. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  12. ^ a b c d Presidential Museum and Library (October 15, 2015). "Second Philippine Republic". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
  13. ^ a b c d "Declaration of Martial Law". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  14. ^ a b Tejero, Constantino C. (November 8, 2015). "The real Manuel Luis Quezon, beyond the posture and bravura". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Philippine Daily Inquirer, Inc. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  15. ^ a b no by-line. (April 16, 1948). "Heart Attack Fatal to Philippine Pres. Roxas". Schenectady Gazette. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  16. ^ a b Presidential Museum and Library. "Death Anniversary of President Ramon Magsaysay". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  17. ^ no by-line. (August 1, 2009). "Philippine ex-leader Aquino dies". BBC News. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  18. ^ Abueva, José V. (February 12, 2013). "Our only republic". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Philippine Daily Inquirer, Inc. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Presidential Museum and Library. "Philippine Presidents". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  20. ^ Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 281
  21. ^ a b c d "Office of the Vice President". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
  22. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Emilio Aguinaldo". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  23. ^ a b "The Commonwealth of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved July 8, 2016.
  24. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Manuel L. Quezon". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  25. ^ The 1935 Constitution:
  26. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Sergio Osmeña". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  27. ^ a b Presidential Museum and Library. "Manuel Roxas". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  28. ^ Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 415
  29. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Today is the birth anniversary of President Jose P. Laurel". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  30. ^ a b Presidential Museum and Library. "Jose P. Laurel". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  31. ^ "The 1943 Constitution". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  32. ^ a b c "Third Republic". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  33. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Elpidio Quirino". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  34. ^ no by-line. (March 18, 1957). "Magsaysay Dead in Plane Crash". St. Petersburg Times. Times Publishing Company. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  35. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Ramon Magsaysay". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  36. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Carlos P. Garcia". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  37. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Diosdado Macapagal". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  38. ^ a b c Reaves, Joseph A. (February 26, 1986). "Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules". Chicago Tribune. Tribune Publishing. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
  39. ^ "Resolution No. 38". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. February 15, 1986. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
  40. ^ a b Chandler & Steinberg 1987, pp. 431–442
  41. ^ "1986 Tally Board". National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections. February 16, 1986. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
  42. ^ a b c Presidential Museum and Library. "Ferdinand E. Marcos". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  43. ^ Sicat, Gerardo P. (September 23, 2015). "Marcos and his failure to provide for an orderly political succession". The Philippine Star. Philippine Star Printing Co., Inc. Retrieved July 9, 2016. The transitional nature of the political system according to the 1973 Constitution was left undefined in view of the martial law government. This constitution adopted a British-style parliamentary system.
  44. ^ "1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
  45. ^ a b Presidential Museum and Library. "Corazon C. Aquino". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  46. ^ "Philippine Constitutions". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 25, 2016.
  47. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Fidel V. Ramos". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  48. ^ Calica, Aurea (January 21, 2001). "SC: People's welfare is the supreme law". The Philippine Star. Philippine Star Printing Co., Inc. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  49. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Joseph Ejercito Estrada". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  50. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  51. ^ Presidential Museum and Library. "Benigno S. Aquino III". Official Gazette. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  52. ^ Staff (May 30, 2016). "Congress proclaims Duterte president-elect, Robredo vice president-elect". CNN Philippines. Nine Media Corporation. Retrieved June 26, 2016.

Cited bibliography

Agoncillo, Teodoro A; Guerrero, Milagros (1970). History of the Filipino People (3rd ed.). Malaya Books. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Castro, Christi-Anne (2011). Musical Renderings of the Philippine Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974640-8. Retrieved June 21, 2016. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Chandler, David P.; Steinberg, David Joel (1987). In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Revised 2nd ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1110-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Guevara, Sulpico, ed. (1972). The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos). Manila: National Historical Institute. Retrieved June 18, 2016. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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