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Myers–Briggs Type Indicator

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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed to assist a person in identifying some significant personal preferences. Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers developed the Indicator during World War II, and its criteria follow from Carl Jung's theories in his work Psychological Types.[1]

The Indicator is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, employee training, leadership training, marriage counseling, and personal development. However, scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have criticized the indicator in research literature, claiming that it "lacks convincing validity data" [2] and could be an example of the Forer effect.[3]

The registered trademark rights in the phrase and its abbreviation have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust.[4]

Historical development

C. G. Jung first spoke about typology at the Munich Psychological Congress in 1913. Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in 1917, developing a four-type framework: Social; Thoughtful; Executive; Spontaneous. In 1923 Jung's Psychological Types was published in English translation (having first been published in German in 1921). Katharine Briggs' first publications are two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal New Republic in 1926 (Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box) and 1928 (Up From Barbarism). Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning mystery novel Murder Yet to Come in 1929, using typological ideas. She added to her mother's typological research, which she would progressively take over entirely. In 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator®" was created, and the Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook was published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern form (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®) in 1956.[5][6]

About the indicator

The indicator differs from standardized tests and others measuring traits, such as intelligence, instead classifying people's preferred types. According to Myers-Briggs Theory, while types and traits are both inborn, traits can be improved akin to skills, whereas types, if supported by a healthy environment, naturally differentiate over time. The indicator attempts to tell the order in which this occurs in each person, and it is that information, combined with interviews done with others who have indicated having the same preferences, that the complete descriptions are based on. The indicator then, is akin to an arrow which attempts to point in the direction of the proper description. The facet of the theory which posits that the features being sorted for are in fact types, and not traits which can be improved with practice, is hotly debated.

However, proponents of the indicator will explain that to learn about one's inborn traits is to create the opportunity to improve how one applies them in different contexts. In that sense, the MBTI can yield much personal change and growth.

The types the MBTI sorts for, known as dichotomies, are extroversion / introversion, sensing / intuition, thinking / feeling and judging / perceiving. Participants are given one of 16 four-letter acronyms, such as ESTJ or INFP, indicating what their preferences are. The term best-fit types refers to the ethical code that facilitators are required to follow. It states that the person taking the indicator is always the best judge of what their preferences are and that the indicator alone should never be used to make this decision.

The preferences

Dichotomies
Extroversion Introversion
Sensing iNtuition
Thinking Feeling
Judging Perceiving
A dichotomy is a division of two mutually exclusive groups, or in this case, type preferences.
  • The terms Introvert and Extrovert (originally spelled ‘extravert’ by Carl Gustav Jung, who first used the terms in the context of psychology, although 'extrovert' is now by far the more common spelling) are referred to as attitudes and show how a person orients and receives their energy. In the extroverted attitude the energy flow is outward, and the preferred focus is on other people and things, whereas in the introverted attitude the energy flow is inward, and the preferred focus is on one's own thoughts and ideas.
  • Sensing and Intuition are the perceiving functions. They indicate how a person prefers to receive data. These are the nonrational functions, as a person does not necessarily have control over receiving data, but only how to process it once they have it. Sensing prefers to receive data primarily from the five senses, and intuition prefers to receive data from the subconscious, or seeing relationships via insights.
  • Thinking and Feeling are the judging functions. They both strive to make rational judgments and decisions using the data received from their perceiving functions, above. Thinking uses logical "true or false, if-then" connections. Feeling uses "more or less, better-worse" evaluations. It could be said that thinkers decide with their heads, while feelers decide with their hearts. When Thinking or Feeling is extroverted, judgments tend to rely on external sources and the generally accepted rules and procedures. When introverted, Thinking and Feeling judgments tend to be subjective, relying on internally generated ideas for logical organization and evaluation.
  • Judging and Perceiving reveals the specific attitudes of the functions. It records which of the strongest of the judging functions or perceiving functions is displayed to the outside world. In J-types, the preferred judging function (T or F) is extroverted (displayed in the outer world). J-types tend to prefer a step-by-step (left brain: parts to whole) approach to life, relying on external rules and procedures, and preferring quick closure. The preferred perceiving function (S or N) is introverted. On the other hand, in P-types the preferred perceiving function is extroverted, and the preferred judging function is introverted. This can result in a "bouncing around" approach to life (right brain: whole to parts), relying on subjective judgments, and a desire to leave all options open. (The terminology may be misleading for some—the term "Judging" does not imply "judgmental," and "Perceiving" does not imply "perceptive.") For introverts, it is the auxiliary function, not the dominant function, that this letter refers to. MBTI INTP, for example, has a dominant Judging function, introverted Thinking (Ti), but it is actually a Perceiving type in MBTI because the strongest Perceiving function is extroverted iNtuition (Ne). (Socionics, a personality theory similar to MBTI, follows opposite notation for introverts; the J/P designation in this theory refers to the dominant function for all types.)

Type dynamics

File:TheSixteenTypesMBTI.jpg
The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers, who preferred INFP (To find the opposite type of the one you are looking at, jump over one type diagonally.)
File:PopulationBreakdownMBTI.jpg
By using inferential statistics an estimate of the preferences found in the US population has been gathered

The interaction of two, three, or four preferences are known as type dynamics, and when dealing with a four-preference combination it is called a type. In total, there are 16 unique types, and many more possible two and three letter combinations, which each have their own descriptive name. Additionally, it is sometimes possible to observe the interactions that each preference combination will have with another combination, although this is more unorthodox. Complete descriptions will contain the unique interactions of all four preferences in that person, and these are typically written by licensed psychologists based on data gathered from thousands of interviews and studies. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type has released short descriptions on the internet.[7] The most in-depth descriptions, including statistics, can be found in The Manual.[8]

The type table

The type table is a visualization tool which is useful for discussing the dynamic qualities and interactions of preference combinations. It will typically be divided by selecting any pair of preferences and comparing or contrasting. One of the most common and basic has been used to the right. It is the grouping of the mental functions, ST, SF, NF and NT, and focuses on the combination of perception and judgment. Alternatively, if we group by the rows we will have the four attitudes which are IJ, IP, EP and EJ. There are also more complex groupings, such as combinations of perception and orientations to the outer world, which are SJ, SP, NP and NJ, or combinations of judgement and orientations to the outer world, which are TJ, TP, FP, and FJ.

Cognitive function dynamics in each type

In each type, all four of the cognitive, or mental functions, which are sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling, are present and arranged in a different order. The type acronym is used as a quick way to figure out this order, which is slightly different in introverts and extroverts. An important point to remember is that the first and last letter of the type are used as guides to figure out the order of the middle two letters, which are the main priority. The chart below this section has the dynamics worked out for each type.

Extroverts

If the first letter of the type is an E, such as ESTJ, then the dominant function is extroverted. The next step is to figure out to which of the middle two letters this applies. If the last letter is a P, then the dominant will be the second letter, the perceiving function, Sensing in this example, and if it is a J, then it will be the third letter, the judging function - in this case, Thinking. Thus, we can tell that the first or dominant function in the ESTJ is extroverted thinking, and the second is introverted sensing. The third function is the opposite of the second, and in this case is extroverted intuition, and the fourth is introverted feeling.

Introverts

If the first letter of the type is an I, such as in INFP, then the dominant is introverted. To figure out which of the middle two letters this applies to, look at the last letter, which indicates which function is extroverted. If it is a P, then the introverted dominant function will be the third letter, which is the judging function, and if it is a J, then it will be the second letter, which is the perceiving function. (The process may seem backwards and slightly confusing for introverts.) Already it is possible to tell that the INFP has an introverted dominant, and since their perceiving function (iNtuition) is extroverted, the dominant must be the judging function (Feeling). Thus the dominant function is introverted feeling, and the second function (the auxiliary) is extroverted intuition.

The four functions alternate in orientation. For introverts, the sequence would proceed introverted, extroverted, introverted, extroverted. The third function (the tertiary) is the opposite of the second, and the fourth is the opposite of the first. For an INFP, with introverted feeling and extroverted intuition, the third function is introverted sensing, and the fourth is extroverted thinking.

Function table

Template:MBTI table

Below, the MBTI personality archetypes, after David West Keirsey [1]. Keirsey adds four "Temperaments": SP - Artisan; SJ - Guardian; NF - Idealist; and NT - Rational.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed to assist a person in identifying some significant personal preferences. Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers developed the Indicator during World War II, and its criteria follow from Carl Jung's theories in his work Psychological Types.[9]

The Indicator is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, employee training, leadership training, marriage counseling, and personal development. However, scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have criticized the indicator in research literature, claiming that it "lacks convincing validity data" [10] and could be an example of the Forer effect.[11]

The registered trademark rights in the phrase and its abbreviation have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust.[12]

Historical development

C. G. Jung first spoke about typology at the Munich Psychological Congress in 1913. Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in 1917, developing a four-type framework: Social; Thoughtful; Executive; Spontaneous. In 1923 Jung's Psychological Types was published in English translation (having first been published in German in 1921). Katharine Briggs' first publications are two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal New Republic in 1926 (Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box) and 1928 (Up From Barbarism). Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning mystery novel Murder Yet to Come in 1929, using typological ideas. She added to her mother's typological research, which she would progressively take over entirely. In 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator®" was created, and the Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook was published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern form (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®) in 1956.[13][14]

About the indicator

The indicator differs from standardized tests and others measuring traits, such as intelligence, instead classifying people's preferred types. According to Myers-Briggs Theory, while types and traits are both inborn, traits can be improved akin to skills, whereas types, if supported by a healthy environment, naturally differentiate over time. The indicator attempts to tell the order in which this occurs in each person, and it is that information, combined with interviews done with others who have indicated having the same preferences, that the complete descriptions are based on. The indicator then, is akin to an arrow which attempts to point in the direction of the proper description. The facet of the theory which posits that the features being sorted for are in fact types, and not traits which can be improved with practice, is hotly debated.

However, proponents of the indicator will explain that to learn about one's inborn traits is to create the opportunity to improve how one applies them in different contexts. In that sense, the MBTI can yield much personal change and growth.

The types the MBTI sorts for, known as dichotomies, are extroversion / introversion, sensing / intuition, thinking / feeling and judging / perceiving. Participants are given one of 16 four-letter acronyms, such as ESTJ or INFP, indicating what their preferences are. The term best-fit types refers to the ethical code that facilitators are required to follow. It states that the person taking the indicator is always the best judge of what their preferences are and that the indicator alone should never be used to make this decision.

The preferences

Dichotomies
Extroversion Introversion
Sensing iNtuition
Thinking Feeling
Judging Perceiving
A dichotomy is a division of two mutually exclusive groups, or in this case, type preferences.
  • The terms Introvert and Extrovert (originally spelled ‘extravert’ by Carl Gustav Jung, who first used the terms in the context of psychology, although 'extrovert' is now by far the more common spelling) are referred to as attitudes and show how a person orients and receives their energy. In the extroverted attitude the energy flow is outward, and the preferred focus is on other people and things, whereas in the introverted attitude the energy flow is inward, and the preferred focus is on one's own thoughts and ideas.
  • Sensing and Intuition are the perceiving functions. They indicate how a person prefers to receive data. These are the nonrational functions, as a person does not necessarily have control over receiving data, but only how to process it once they have it. Sensing prefers to receive data primarily from the five senses, and intuition prefers to receive data from the subconscious, or seeing relationships via insights.
  • Thinking and Feeling are the judging functions. They both strive to make rational judgments and decisions using the data received from their perceiving functions, above. Thinking uses logical "true or false, if-then" connections. Feeling uses "more or less, better-worse" evaluations. It could be said that thinkers decide with their heads, while feelers decide with their hearts. When Thinking or Feeling is extroverted, judgments tend to rely on external sources and the generally accepted rules and procedures. When introverted, Thinking and Feeling judgments tend to be subjective, relying on internally generated ideas for logical organization and evaluation.
  • Judging and Perceiving reveals the specific attitudes of the functions. It records which of the strongest of the judging functions or perceiving functions is displayed to the outside world. In J-types, the preferred judging function (T or F) is extroverted (displayed in the outer world). J-types tend to prefer a step-by-step (left brain: parts to whole) approach to life, relying on external rules and procedures, and preferring quick closure. The preferred perceiving function (S or N) is introverted. On the other hand, in P-types the preferred perceiving function is extroverted, and the preferred judging function is introverted. This can result in a "bouncing around" approach to life (right brain: whole to parts), relying on subjective judgments, and a desire to leave all options open. (The terminology may be misleading for some—the term "Judging" does not imply "judgmental," and "Perceiving" does not imply "perceptive.") For introverts, it is the auxiliary function, not the dominant function, that this letter refers to. MBTI INTP, for example, has a dominant Judging function, introverted Thinking (Ti), but it is actually a Perceiving type in MBTI because the strongest Perceiving function is extroverted iNtuition (Ne). (Socionics, a personality theory similar to MBTI, follows opposite notation for introverts; the J/P designation in this theory refers to the dominant function for all types.)

Type dynamics

File:TheSixteenTypesMBTI.jpg
The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers, who preferred INFP (To find the opposite type of the one you are looking at, jump over one type diagonally.)
File:PopulationBreakdownMBTI.jpg
By using inferential statistics an estimate of the preferences found in the US population has been gathered

The interaction of two, three, or four preferences are known as type dynamics, and when dealing with a four-preference combination it is called a type. In total, there are 16 unique types, and many more possible two and three letter combinations, which each have their own descriptive name. Additionally, it is sometimes possible to observe the interactions that each preference combination will have with another combination, although this is more unorthodox. Complete descriptions will contain the unique interactions of all four preferences in that person, and these are typically written by licensed psychologists based on data gathered from thousands of interviews and studies. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type has released short descriptions on the internet.[15] The most in-depth descriptions, including statistics, can be found in The Manual.[16]

The type table

The type table is a visualization tool which is useful for discussing the dynamic qualities and interactions of preference combinations. It will typically be divided by selecting any pair of preferences and comparing or contrasting. One of the most common and basic has been used to the right. It is the grouping of the mental functions, ST, SF, NF and NT, and focuses on the combination of perception and judgment. Alternatively, if we group by the rows we will have the four attitudes which are IJ, IP, EP and EJ. There are also more complex groupings, such as combinations of perception and orientations to the outer world, which are SJ, SP, NP and NJ, or combinations of judgement and orientations to the outer world, which are TJ, TP, FP, and FJ.

Cognitive function dynamics in each type

In each type, all four of the cognitive, or mental functions, which are sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling, are present and arranged in a different order. The type acronym is used as a quick way to figure out this order, which is slightly different in introverts and extroverts. An important point to remember is that the first and last letter of the type are used as guides to figure out the order of the middle two letters, which are the main priority. The chart below this section has the dynamics worked out for each type.

Extroverts

If the first letter of the type is an E, such as ESTJ, then the dominant function is extroverted. The next step is to figure out to which of the middle two letters this applies. If the last letter is a P, then the dominant will be the second letter, the perceiving function, Sensing in this example, and if it is a J, then it will be the third letter, the judging function - in this case, Thinking. Thus, we can tell that the first or dominant function in the ESTJ is extroverted thinking, and the second is introverted sensing. The third function is the opposite of the second, and in this case is extroverted intuition, and the fourth is introverted feeling.

Introverts

If the first letter of the type is an I, such as in INFP, then the dominant is introverted. To figure out which of the middle two letters this applies to, look at the last letter, which indicates which function is extroverted. If it is a P, then the introverted dominant function will be the third letter, which is the judging function, and if it is a J, then it will be the second letter, which is the perceiving function. (The process may seem backwards and slightly confusing for introverts.) Already it is possible to tell that the INFP has an introverted dominant, and since their perceiving function (iNtuition) is extroverted, the dominant must be the judging function (Feeling). Thus the dominant function is introverted feeling, and the second function (the auxiliary) is extroverted intuition.

The four functions alternate in orientation. For introverts, the sequence would proceed introverted, extroverted, introverted, extroverted. The third function (the tertiary) is the opposite of the second, and the fourth is the opposite of the first. For an INFP, with introverted feeling and extroverted intuition, the third function is introverted sensing, and the fourth is extroverted thinking.

Function table

Template:MBTI table

Below, the MBTI personality archetypes, after David West Keirsey [2]. Keirsey adds four "Temperaments": SP - Artisan; SJ - Guardian; NF - Idealist; and NT - Rational.

Template loop detected: Template:MBTI Archetypes

Characteristics of Each Personality Type

ENFJ (The Educator or Teacher)

ENFJs are outgoing, sociable people who value harmony and fellowship above everything else. These people are especially skilled at leading groups of people and at instructing others. ENFJs are usually charming people and it's often their charm that allows them to be so influential with others. They tend to be very idealistic as well, so they always use their sociableness towards worthwhile ends. They're much more attracted to ideas than they are to details, so they rarely enjoy work where a great deal of technical precision or an attention to detail is required. Teachers, ministers, and health care professionals are examples of careers commonly chosen by ENFJs.


ENFP (The Motivator or Champion)

Motivators earned their name for their uncanny ability to get the best out of people. ENFPs tend to be innovative and spontaneous, so while they're excellent at coming up with original ideas and finding creative solutions to problems, they're much less interested with the detailed implementation of their ideas. These people don't like to operate where there's too much structure or routine and are much happier in flexible environments that allow them to exercise their creativity. ENFPs can often be found working as journalists, liberal arts instructors, or counselors.


ENTJ (The Leader or Field Marshal)

While ENTJs are outgoing and dynamic people, they tend to be less concerned with the thoughts and feelings of others than they are with the facts and figures of a situation. These powerful people are good decision-makers because their decisions tend to be based on the facts and on what's best for the group in the big picture rather than on the needs of individuals. They like working with others, but they demand competence and efficiency and prefer to be in charge or to at least have substantial influence within the group. ENTJs don't tend to enjoy jobs where they need to stay attuned to the emotions of others and where they'll be required to nurture those around them. These people are well-suited to work as attorneys, consultants, or managers.


ENTP (The Creator or Inventor)

Creators are extremely inventive, analytical people who enjoy looking for fresh, new ways to do things. They're always trying to figure out the functional nature of people and things so they can find the optimal way to get things done. These people thrive on debate and discussion of any kind if it will help unearth a better, more efficient way to do something. ENTPs are often frustrated in work environments where they're expected to follow well-established methods of doing things. Computer entrepreneurs, photographers, and marketing professionals are examples of careers commonly chosen by ENTPs.


ESFJ (The Caretaker or Provider)

These warm, sympathetic people are naturally predisposed to care deeply about the well-being of others. ESFJs have well-developed people skills and are remarkably adept at promoting harmony and fellowship within groups. Caretakers also tend to be very practical and they're willing to do whatever it takes to make sure people are as comfortable and happy as possible. They'd rather not waste their time with abstract ideas and hypothetical discussions because those only serve to distract them from the people and things that matter most to them. Not surprisingly, ESFJs are often drawn to careers as teachers, religious workers, and health care providers.


ESFP (The Showman or Performer)

ESFPs are extremely outgoing and sociable people by nature. They love working with other people and they're natural performers since they relish the spotlight. While they enjoy working with others, they don't necessarily like being the ones to crack the whip and get people into line; they'd rather be the ones getting everyone to smile and lighten up. ESFPs are typically the life of the party wherever they go and they're especially concerned about making sure everyone's needs are met. Examples of careers commonly chosen by ESFPs include recreation professionals, child care professionals, and teachers.


ESTJ (The Overseer or Supervisor)

Overseers are outgoing, community-oriented people who enjoy working with others and being in positions of authority. These people take special pride in doing their jobs competently and effectively and they make excellent managers and supervisors since they're skilled at instilling these values in others. They enjoy interacting with others, but they never let their sociability get in the way of performing the job at hand. These people are very practical in nature and don't enjoy working with the abstract or theoretical. Management, accounting, and law enforcement are examples of professions commonly chosen by ESTJs.


ESTP (The Organizer or Promoter)

ESTPs are friendly, logical, and resourceful and they have a knack for being able to convert people to their point of view. Because they are so naturally influential, they are highly skilled promoters and naturals at gaining support for an idea or cause they believe in. These people are socially adept like no other personality type and it's very important for them to have their way. Because of this, these people don't work well in highly-structured environments where they don't feel any personal attachment towards what they're doing. ESTPs are often drawn to careers as marketing professionals, police detectives, and small business owners.


INFJ (The Mentor or Counselor)

These people are typically complicated by nature and their introspective nature makes them particularly adept at understanding the complexities and intricacies of others. INFJs are empathetic people who are deeply concerned about the growth and development of those around them. They're often spiritually or artistically inclined and they enjoy having time to themselves so they can reflect on and contemplate the complicated nature of things. These creative people need to have the room and flexibility to follow their inner desires and they're not happy doing jobs in a bureaucratic environment where conformity is expected. INFJs can often be found working as religious educators, artists, or teachers.


INFP (The Mender or Healer)

Menders are understanding, sympathetic people who live their lives according to their deep-seated idealism. They're sociable by nature, but they prefer working with people in one-on-one environments rather than in large groups. INFPs typically have excellent communication skills and are particularly good at reaching those people who are looking to connect with others. These people are able to understand the pain of others because they've experienced similar pain themselves and they want to take what they've learned to heal others. INFPs cannot be happy unless they're doing work that is intrinsically valuable to them. Aside from being well-suited for writing, INFPs are also drawn to jobs as artists, psychologists, or teachers.


INTJ (The Pragmatist or Mastermind)

INTJs are analytical, intuitive people who prefer to work alone so they can have the privacy required to develop their ideas and insights. They're not people persons per se, but they are willing to lead if nobody else is up to the task. INTJs are very practical people who seem particularly adept at drawing up contingency plans and problem solving. These people tend to be very individualistic and they're not usually happy doing jobs that require them to work closely with others. INTJs can often be found working as architects, lawyers, or scientists.


INTP (The Planner or Architect)

Planners are people who don't mind long periods of isolation where they have time to analyze problems and look for solutions. They have an innate curiosity about how things work and enjoy socializing with people who have a similar penchant. They're happiest when they can lose themselves in whatever they're doing and resent being confined to the structure and bureaucracy inherent in many professions. They also don't like jobs where they're asked to spend a lot of time nurturing others and caring for their needs. They don't mind helping other people, but they'd rather use their analytical skills to help people from a distance. Science, architecture, and law are examples of fields that INTPs are typically drawn to.


ISFJ (The Stabilizer or Protector)

Stabilizers are caring, sensitive people who are very considerate of the needs of others. They value harmony and order and will do what is required to ensure they have those things. They don't mind working with people one-on-one, but they don't like being the center of attention and don't particularly like working with large groups of people. Conscientious and reliable, these people are happy competently performing their work behind the scenes. ISFJs are typically drawn to careers in nursing, counseling, or teaching.


ISFP (The Arranger or Composer)

These friendly, sympathetic people enjoy working with tangible things and are highly skilled at creating harmony out of seemingly disparate parts. ISFPs are highly adaptable people who enjoy gathering information that will help them piece together separate parts to make a whole. Whether they're working with visual, auditory, or tactile elements, they're especially skilled at finding harmony in the separate elements. They enjoy a fair amount of independence and resent having to work in highly structured, bureaucratic environments. ISFPs are typically attracted to careers as composers, filmmakers, or fashion designers.


ISTJ (The Examiner or Inspector)

Examiners are conscientious, reliable people who can always be counted on by friends and co-workers. ISTJs don't mind working with other people, but they prefer to remain behind the scenes where they can concentrate on examining what's in front of them. They tend to be patient and dedicated and they enjoy working in a highly organized environment. ISTJs are much more concerned with facts than they are with emotions, so they don't typically enjoy professions where they're required to attend too closely to the needs and emotions of others. They prefer to just go about their business as best they can without getting distracted by matters they consider unimportant. Careers in accounting, engineering, and computer operations are usually a good fit for ISTJs.


ISTP (The Technician or Crafter)

ISTPs tend to be logical, fact-oriented people who are naturally skilled at solving problems. They're less concerned with interacting with other people in a nurturing way than they are with accumulating the facts and then systematically resolving the problem. Their communication style is very direct and if they want something done, they can usually find someone to do their bidding for them. ISTPs tend to be very good with tools and in some ways people can become another tool for them when they want to accomplish something. These people are often drawn to jobs as engineers, technicians, or farmers.

Controversy surrounding the cognitive functions

Main article: Cognitive functions

Isabel Myers interpreted Jung's writing as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect.[citation needed] Some Jungians assert that Jung made explicit the point that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance.[citation needed] More recently, typologists have examined the relationships between all four functions in both attitudes —introverted or extroverted. Whether looking at the four functions, or eight "function attitudes," the inferior function remains most unconscious (least developed).

Temperament

Main article: Keirsey Temperament Sorter
File:MBTITemperament.png
Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.

Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher who lived from 460-377 B.C., proposed four humours in his writings. These were blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Around A.D. 190, Galen corresponded these to four temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. In 1978, David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates reintroduced temperament theory in modern form and identified them as Artisan, Guardian, Idealist, and Rational. After developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey discovered the MBTI, and found that by combining Sensing with the perceiving functions, SP (Artisan) and SJ (Guardian), and iNtuition with the judging functions, NF (Idealist) and NT (Rational), he had descriptions similar to his four temperaments.[17][18]

The Manual states on page 59 that, "It is important to recognize that temperament theory is not a variant of type theory, nor is type theory a variant of temperament theory." Keirsey later went on to develop the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which was first included in his book Please Understand Me.

About the test, scoring and psychometrics

The current test asks 93 forced-choice questions, which means there are only two options. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose. Using psychometric techniques, such as item response theory, the test will then be scored and will attempt to identify which dichotomy the participant prefers. After taking the test, participants are given a readout of their score, which will include a bar graph and number of how many points they received on a certain scale. Confusion over the meaning of these numbers often causes them to be related to trait theory, and people mistakenly believe, for example, that their intuition is "more developed" than their sensing, or vice versa.

During construction of the test, thousands of items are used, and most are thrown out because they do not have high midpoint discrimination, meaning the results of that one item do not, on average, move an individual score away from the midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the test to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as a test with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The test requires five points one way or another before it is nearly as sure it can statistically be concerning a preference.

Statistical studies

McCrae & Costa [19] present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological tests. The five personality characteristics are extroversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 men followed as part of a longitudinal study of ageing. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)

Ex­tra­ver­sion Open­ness Agree­able­ness Con­sci­en­tious­ness Neu­rot­i­cism
E–I −0.74 0.03 −0.03 0.08 0.16
S–N 0.10 0.72 0.04 −0.15 −0.06
T–F 0.19 0.02 0.44 −0.15 0.06
J–P 0.15 0.30 −0.06 −0.49 0.11

The closer the number is to 1.0 or −1.0, the higher the degree of correlation.

These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the Big Five personality traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are strongly related to extroversion and openness respectively. T-F and J-P are more weakly related to agreeableness and conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely absent from the MBTI.

Split-half reliability of the MBTI scales is good, although test-retest reliability is sensitive to the time between tests. However, because the MBTI dichotomies scores in the middle of the distribution, type allocations are less reliable. Within each scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorisations remain the same when retested within nine months, and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% remain the same after nine months. [20]

Ethics

Before purchasing the test, practitioners are required to consent to an ethical code, in addition to meeting the educational requirements of class B and C psychological tests and assessments. After consenting to this code the usage of the indicator is largely unmonitored, which sometimes leads to abuses of the instrument. The ethical code contains, but is not limited to, the following points:[21][22]

  1. Results should be given directly to respondents and are strictly confidential, including from employers.
  2. Respondents should be informed of the nature of the test before taking it, and must choose to take it voluntarily.
  3. Allow respondents to clarify their results. They are always the last word as to which type is truly theirs. They should then be provided a written description of their preferences.
  4. The test must be used in accordance with The Manual.

Criticisms and skeptical view

Scientific skeptics such as Robert Todd Carroll, author of The Skeptic's Dictionary, have presented several potential problems with the MBTI. Neither Katharine Cook Briggs nor Isabel Briggs Myers had any scientific, medical, psychiatric or psychological qualifications; Isabel Briggs Myers had a bachelors degree in Political Science. The theory of psychological types created by Carl Jung was not based on any controlled studies —the only statistical study Jung performed was in the field of astrology. Jung's methods primarily included introspection and anecdote, methods largely rejected by the modern field of cognitive psychology.

The test's owners, publishers and test administrators, have a clear financial interest in promoting the test as scientific and thus may not be unbiased sources of information about this test. Indeed, much of the positive information presented about the MBTI is from the Consulting Psychologists Press (the MBTI's publishers) and associated organisations.

The basic skeptical claim against the MBTI is that any conclusions made from the types lack falsifiability, which can cause confirmation bias in the interpretation of the results. It has also been argued that the terminology of the MBTI is so vague and complicated that it allows any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, resulting in the Forer effect, where an individual gives a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to him. Therefore it is difficult to validate any of the claims made by the MBTI using scientific methods. Carroll says, "no matter what your preferences, your behavior will still sometimes indicate contrasting behavior. Thus, no behavior can ever be used to falsify the type, and any behavior can be used to verify it."

The MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests, in which participants accept reports written for other participants, and are asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as a scientific assessment. The MBTI has also been criticised on the two measures of any psychometric test: validity and reliability. Test retest reliability is considered to be low, with test takers who retake the test often being assigned a different type. Validity has been questioned on theoretical grounds.

Given the strong philosophical belief in types (as opposed to continua), one might expect that scores are bimodal with peaks near the ends of the scales. However, scores on the individual subscales are actually distributed in a peaked manner similar to a normal distribution. A cut-off exists at the centre of the subscale such that a score on one side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the opposite type. This fails to support the concept of type--the norm is for people to lie near the middle of the subscale [23].

Forcing a dichotomy leads to people who are very small distances apart on their scores being categorised as being qualitatively different from one another because they fall on opposite sides of the cut-off, while being lumped in with much more extreme scores that fall on the same side of the cut-off.

For this approach to be valid the sixteen different personality types in the MBTI should do more than simply tell us that someone scored above or below the cut-off score, it should pick-out a real subgroup of people who share characteristics over and above the score. This is in fact the view of the designers of the MBTI. However, evidence for the existence of these subtypes, independent of the underlying subscales, is difficult to prove.[24]

As well as questioning the scientific validity of the MBTI others have argued that, while the MBTI may be useful for self-understanding, it is commonly used for pigeonholing people or for self-pigeonholing which may be of limited use or even detrimental [25]

See also

References

  • 'Personality & Intelligence', Alex Lukeman, Ph.D., 1998, [4]

Notes

Wikiquote has quotations related to Psychological Type.
  1. ^ Jung, Carl Gustav (August 1, 1971). Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09770-4.
  2. ^ Hunsley J, Lee CM, Wood JM (2004). Controversial and questionable assessment techniques. Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford, ISBN 1-59385-070-0, p. 65.
  3. ^ Carroll, Robert Todd (January 9, 2004). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved January 8, 2004.
  4. ^ Consulting Psychologists Press (2004). Trademark Guidelines. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  5. ^ Geyer, Peter (1998) Some Significant Dates. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
  6. ^ University of Florida (2003) Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992, George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
  7. ^ Martin, Charles Dr. (2004) The Sixteen Types at a Glance. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  8. ^ Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator). Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN 0-89106-130-4
  9. ^ Jung, Carl Gustav (August 1, 1971). Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09770-4.
  10. ^ Hunsley J, Lee CM, Wood JM (2004). Controversial and questionable assessment techniques. Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford, ISBN 1-59385-070-0, p. 65.
  11. ^ Carroll, Robert Todd (January 9, 2004). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved January 8, 2004.
  12. ^ Consulting Psychologists Press (2004). Trademark Guidelines. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  13. ^ Geyer, Peter (1998) Some Significant Dates. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
  14. ^ University of Florida (2003) Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992, George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
  15. ^ Martin, Charles Dr. (2004) The Sixteen Types at a Glance. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  16. ^ Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator). Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN 0-89106-130-4
  17. ^ Keirsey, David (1998). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co Inc; 1st ed edition. ISBN 1-885705-02-6
  18. ^ Keirsey, David (2001). Keirsey Temperament versus Myers-Briggs Types. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  19. ^ McCrae, R R; Costa, P T (1989) Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57(1):17-40.
  20. ^ Harvey, R J (1996) Reliability and Validity, in MBTI Applications. A.L. Hammer, Editor. Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA. p. 5- 29.
  21. ^ The Myers & Briggs Foundation. Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  22. ^ The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. MBTI® Code of Ethics. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  23. ^ Bess, T.L. & Harvey, R.J. (2001, April). Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego.
  24. ^ Matthews, P (2004) The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality. bmj.com Rapid Responses.
  25. ^ Pittenger, D.J. (1993) Measuring the MBTI...And Coming Up Short (pdf). Journal of Career Planning & Placement.

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Unauthorized personality tests inspired by Myers-Briggs / Keirsey

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Additional information and essays on all 16 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Profiles

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Characteristics of Each Personality Type

ENFJ (The Educator or Teacher)

ENFJs are outgoing, sociable people who value harmony and fellowship above everything else. These people are especially skilled at leading groups of people and at instructing others. ENFJs are usually charming people and it's often their charm that allows them to be so influential with others. They tend to be very idealistic as well, so they always use their sociableness towards worthwhile ends. They're much more attracted to ideas than they are to details, so they rarely enjoy work where a great deal of technical precision or an attention to detail is required. Teachers, ministers, and health care professionals are examples of careers commonly chosen by ENFJs.


ENFP (The Motivator or Champion)

Motivators earned their name for their uncanny ability to get the best out of people. ENFPs tend to be innovative and spontaneous, so while they're excellent at coming up with original ideas and finding creative solutions to problems, they're much less interested with the detailed implementation of their ideas. These people don't like to operate where there's too much structure or routine and are much happier in flexible environments that allow them to exercise their creativity. ENFPs can often be found working as journalists, liberal arts instructors, or counselors.


ENTJ (The Leader or Field Marshal)

While ENTJs are outgoing and dynamic people, they tend to be less concerned with the thoughts and feelings of others than they are with the facts and figures of a situation. These powerful people are good decision-makers because their decisions tend to be based on the facts and on what's best for the group in the big picture rather than on the needs of individuals. They like working with others, but they demand competence and efficiency and prefer to be in charge or to at least have substantial influence within the group. ENTJs don't tend to enjoy jobs where they need to stay attuned to the emotions of others and where they'll be required to nurture those around them. These people are well-suited to work as attorneys, consultants, or managers.


ENTP (The Creator or Inventor)

Creators are extremely inventive, analytical people who enjoy looking for fresh, new ways to do things. They're always trying to figure out the functional nature of people and things so they can find the optimal way to get things done. These people thrive on debate and discussion of any kind if it will help unearth a better, more efficient way to do something. ENTPs are often frustrated in work environments where they're expected to follow well-established methods of doing things. Computer entrepreneurs, photographers, and marketing professionals are examples of careers commonly chosen by ENTPs.


ESFJ (The Caretaker or Provider)

These warm, sympathetic people are naturally predisposed to care deeply about the well-being of others. ESFJs have well-developed people skills and are remarkably adept at promoting harmony and fellowship within groups. Caretakers also tend to be very practical and they're willing to do whatever it takes to make sure people are as comfortable and happy as possible. They'd rather not waste their time with abstract ideas and hypothetical discussions because those only serve to distract them from the people and things that matter most to them. Not surprisingly, ESFJs are often drawn to careers as teachers, religious workers, and health care providers.


ESFP (The Showman or Performer)

ESFPs are extremely outgoing and sociable people by nature. They love working with other people and they're natural performers since they relish the spotlight. While they enjoy working with others, they don't necessarily like being the ones to crack the whip and get people into line; they'd rather be the ones getting everyone to smile and lighten up. ESFPs are typically the life of the party wherever they go and they're especially concerned about making sure everyone's needs are met. Examples of careers commonly chosen by ESFPs include recreation professionals, child care professionals, and teachers.


ESTJ (The Overseer or Supervisor)

Overseers are outgoing, community-oriented people who enjoy working with others and being in positions of authority. These people take special pride in doing their jobs competently and effectively and they make excellent managers and supervisors since they're skilled at instilling these values in others. They enjoy interacting with others, but they never let their sociability get in the way of performing the job at hand. These people are very practical in nature and don't enjoy working with the abstract or theoretical. Management, accounting, and law enforcement are examples of professions commonly chosen by ESTJs.


ESTP (The Organizer or Promoter)

ESTPs are friendly, logical, and resourceful and they have a knack for being able to convert people to their point of view. Because they are so naturally influential, they are highly skilled promoters and naturals at gaining support for an idea or cause they believe in. These people are socially adept like no other personality type and it's very important for them to have their way. Because of this, these people don't work well in highly-structured environments where they don't feel any personal attachment towards what they're doing. ESTPs are often drawn to careers as marketing professionals, police detectives, and small business owners.


INFJ (The Mentor or Counselor)

These people are typically complicated by nature and their introspective nature makes them particularly adept at understanding the complexities and intricacies of others. INFJs are empathetic people who are deeply concerned about the growth and development of those around them. They're often spiritually or artistically inclined and they enjoy having time to themselves so they can reflect on and contemplate the complicated nature of things. These creative people need to have the room and flexibility to follow their inner desires and they're not happy doing jobs in a bureaucratic environment where conformity is expected. INFJs can often be found working as religious educators, artists, or teachers.


INFP (The Mender or Healer)

Menders are understanding, sympathetic people who live their lives according to their deep-seated idealism. They're sociable by nature, but they prefer working with people in one-on-one environments rather than in large groups. INFPs typically have excellent communication skills and are particularly good at reaching those people who are looking to connect with others. These people are able to understand the pain of others because they've experienced similar pain themselves and they want to take what they've learned to heal others. INFPs cannot be happy unless they're doing work that is intrinsically valuable to them. Aside from being well-suited for writing, INFPs are also drawn to jobs as artists, psychologists, or teachers.


INTJ (The Pragmatist or Mastermind)

INTJs are analytical, intuitive people who prefer to work alone so they can have the privacy required to develop their ideas and insights. They're not people persons per se, but they are willing to lead if nobody else is up to the task. INTJs are very practical people who seem particularly adept at drawing up contingency plans and problem solving. These people tend to be very individualistic and they're not usually happy doing jobs that require them to work closely with others. INTJs can often be found working as architects, lawyers, or scientists.


INTP (The Planner or Architect)

Planners are people who don't mind long periods of isolation where they have time to analyze problems and look for solutions. They have an innate curiosity about how things work and enjoy socializing with people who have a similar penchant. They're happiest when they can lose themselves in whatever they're doing and resent being confined to the structure and bureaucracy inherent in many professions. They also don't like jobs where they're asked to spend a lot of time nurturing others and caring for their needs. They don't mind helping other people, but they'd rather use their analytical skills to help people from a distance. Science, architecture, and law are examples of fields that INTPs are typically drawn to.


ISFJ (The Stabilizer or Protector)

Stabilizers are caring, sensitive people who are very considerate of the needs of others. They value harmony and order and will do what is required to ensure they have those things. They don't mind working with people one-on-one, but they don't like being the center of attention and don't particularly like working with large groups of people. Conscientious and reliable, these people are happy competently performing their work behind the scenes. ISFJs are typically drawn to careers in nursing, counseling, or teaching.


ISFP (The Arranger or Composer)

These friendly, sympathetic people enjoy working with tangible things and are highly skilled at creating harmony out of seemingly disparate parts. ISFPs are highly adaptable people who enjoy gathering information that will help them piece together separate parts to make a whole. Whether they're working with visual, auditory, or tactile elements, they're especially skilled at finding harmony in the separate elements. They enjoy a fair amount of independence and resent having to work in highly structured, bureaucratic environments. ISFPs are typically attracted to careers as composers, filmmakers, or fashion designers.


ISTJ (The Examiner or Inspector)

Examiners are conscientious, reliable people who can always be counted on by friends and co-workers. ISTJs don't mind working with other people, but they prefer to remain behind the scenes where they can concentrate on examining what's in front of them. They tend to be patient and dedicated and they enjoy working in a highly organized environment. ISTJs are much more concerned with facts than they are with emotions, so they don't typically enjoy professions where they're required to attend too closely to the needs and emotions of others. They prefer to just go about their business as best they can without getting distracted by matters they consider unimportant. Careers in accounting, engineering, and computer operations are usually a good fit for ISTJs.


ISTP (The Technician or Crafter)

ISTPs tend to be logical, fact-oriented people who are naturally skilled at solving problems. They're less concerned with interacting with other people in a nurturing way than they are with accumulating the facts and then systematically resolving the problem. Their communication style is very direct and if they want something done, they can usually find someone to do their bidding for them. ISTPs tend to be very good with tools and in some ways people can become another tool for them when they want to accomplish something. These people are often drawn to jobs as engineers, technicians, or farmers.

Controversy surrounding the cognitive functions

Main article: Cognitive functions

Isabel Myers interpreted Jung's writing as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect.[citation needed] Some Jungians assert that Jung made explicit the point that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance.[citation needed] More recently, typologists have examined the relationships between all four functions in both attitudes —introverted or extroverted. Whether looking at the four functions, or eight "function attitudes," the inferior function remains most unconscious (least developed).

Temperament

Main article: Keirsey Temperament Sorter
File:MBTITemperament.png
Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.

Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher who lived from 460-377 B.C., proposed four humours in his writings. These were blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Around A.D. 190, Galen corresponded these to four temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. In 1978, David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates reintroduced temperament theory in modern form and identified them as Artisan, Guardian, Idealist, and Rational. After developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey discovered the MBTI, and found that by combining Sensing with the perceiving functions, SP (Artisan) and SJ (Guardian), and iNtuition with the judging functions, NF (Idealist) and NT (Rational), he had descriptions similar to his four temperaments.[1][2]

The Manual states on page 59 that, "It is important to recognize that temperament theory is not a variant of type theory, nor is type theory a variant of temperament theory." Keirsey later went on to develop the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which was first included in his book Please Understand Me.

About the test, scoring and psychometrics

The current test asks 93 forced-choice questions, which means there are only two options. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose. Using psychometric techniques, such as item response theory, the test will then be scored and will attempt to identify which dichotomy the participant prefers. After taking the test, participants are given a readout of their score, which will include a bar graph and number of how many points they received on a certain scale. Confusion over the meaning of these numbers often causes them to be related to trait theory, and people mistakenly believe, for example, that their intuition is "more developed" than their sensing, or vice versa.

During construction of the test, thousands of items are used, and most are thrown out because they do not have high midpoint discrimination, meaning the results of that one item do not, on average, move an individual score away from the midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the test to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as a test with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The test requires five points one way or another before it is nearly as sure it can statistically be concerning a preference.

Statistical studies

McCrae & Costa [3] present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological tests. The five personality characteristics are extroversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 men followed as part of a longitudinal study of ageing. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)

Ex­tra­ver­sion Open­ness Agree­able­ness Con­sci­en­tious­ness Neu­rot­i­cism
E–I −0.74 0.03 −0.03 0.08 0.16
S–N 0.10 0.72 0.04 −0.15 −0.06
T–F 0.19 0.02 0.44 −0.15 0.06
J–P 0.15 0.30 −0.06 −0.49 0.11

The closer the number is to 1.0 or −1.0, the higher the degree of correlation.

These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the Big Five personality traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are strongly related to extroversion and openness respectively. T-F and J-P are more weakly related to agreeableness and conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely absent from the MBTI.

Split-half reliability of the MBTI scales is good, although test-retest reliability is sensitive to the time between tests. However, because the MBTI dichotomies scores in the middle of the distribution, type allocations are less reliable. Within each scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorisations remain the same when retested within nine months, and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% remain the same after nine months. [4]

Ethics

Before purchasing the test, practitioners are required to consent to an ethical code, in addition to meeting the educational requirements of class B and C psychological tests and assessments. After consenting to this code the usage of the indicator is largely unmonitored, which sometimes leads to abuses of the instrument. The ethical code contains, but is not limited to, the following points:[5][6]

  1. Results should be given directly to respondents and are strictly confidential, including from employers.
  2. Respondents should be informed of the nature of the test before taking it, and must choose to take it voluntarily.
  3. Allow respondents to clarify their results. They are always the last word as to which type is truly theirs. They should then be provided a written description of their preferences.
  4. The test must be used in accordance with The Manual.

Criticisms and skeptical view

Scientific skeptics such as Robert Todd Carroll, author of The Skeptic's Dictionary, have presented several potential problems with the MBTI. Neither Katharine Cook Briggs nor Isabel Briggs Myers had any scientific, medical, psychiatric or psychological qualifications; Isabel Briggs Myers had a bachelors degree in Political Science. The theory of psychological types created by Carl Jung was not based on any controlled studies —the only statistical study Jung performed was in the field of astrology. Jung's methods primarily included introspection and anecdote, methods largely rejected by the modern field of cognitive psychology.

The test's owners, publishers and test administrators, have a clear financial interest in promoting the test as scientific and thus may not be unbiased sources of information about this test. Indeed, much of the positive information presented about the MBTI is from the Consulting Psychologists Press (the MBTI's publishers) and associated organisations.

The basic skeptical claim against the MBTI is that any conclusions made from the types lack falsifiability, which can cause confirmation bias in the interpretation of the results. It has also been argued that the terminology of the MBTI is so vague and complicated that it allows any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, resulting in the Forer effect, where an individual gives a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to him. Therefore it is difficult to validate any of the claims made by the MBTI using scientific methods. Carroll says, "no matter what your preferences, your behavior will still sometimes indicate contrasting behavior. Thus, no behavior can ever be used to falsify the type, and any behavior can be used to verify it."

The MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests, in which participants accept reports written for other participants, and are asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as a scientific assessment. The MBTI has also been criticised on the two measures of any psychometric test: validity and reliability. Test retest reliability is considered to be low, with test takers who retake the test often being assigned a different type. Validity has been questioned on theoretical grounds.

Given the strong philosophical belief in types (as opposed to continua), one might expect that scores are bimodal with peaks near the ends of the scales. However, scores on the individual subscales are actually distributed in a peaked manner similar to a normal distribution. A cut-off exists at the centre of the subscale such that a score on one side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the opposite type. This fails to support the concept of type--the norm is for people to lie near the middle of the subscale [7].

Forcing a dichotomy leads to people who are very small distances apart on their scores being categorised as being qualitatively different from one another because they fall on opposite sides of the cut-off, while being lumped in with much more extreme scores that fall on the same side of the cut-off.

For this approach to be valid the sixteen different personality types in the MBTI should do more than simply tell us that someone scored above or below the cut-off score, it should pick-out a real subgroup of people who share characteristics over and above the score. This is in fact the view of the designers of the MBTI. However, evidence for the existence of these subtypes, independent of the underlying subscales, is difficult to prove.[8]

As well as questioning the scientific validity of the MBTI others have argued that, while the MBTI may be useful for self-understanding, it is commonly used for pigeonholing people or for self-pigeonholing which may be of limited use or even detrimental [9]

See also

References

  • 'Personality & Intelligence', Alex Lukeman, Ph.D., 1998, [6]

Notes

Wikiquote has quotations related to Psychological Type.
  1. ^ Keirsey, David (1998). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co Inc; 1st ed edition. ISBN 1-885705-02-6
  2. ^ Keirsey, David (2001). Keirsey Temperament versus Myers-Briggs Types. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  3. ^ McCrae, R R; Costa, P T (1989) Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57(1):17-40.
  4. ^ Harvey, R J (1996) Reliability and Validity, in MBTI Applications. A.L. Hammer, Editor. Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA. p. 5- 29.
  5. ^ The Myers & Briggs Foundation. Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  6. ^ The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. MBTI® Code of Ethics. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
  7. ^ Bess, T.L. & Harvey, R.J. (2001, April). Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego.
  8. ^ Matthews, P (2004) The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality. bmj.com Rapid Responses.
  9. ^ Pittenger, D.J. (1993) Measuring the MBTI...And Coming Up Short (pdf). Journal of Career Planning & Placement.

Authorized Myers-Briggs / Keirsey tests

Unauthorized personality tests inspired by Myers-Briggs / Keirsey

Free

Commercial

  • MajorsPTI – advanced Personality Type Inventory

Additional information and essays on all 16 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Profiles

Template:MyersBriggsTypes

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator&oldid=83923258"