A Guide for the Perplexed

A Guide For The Perplexed is a book by E.F. Schumacher published in 1977. It is a treatise on nature and organisation of knowledge and is something of an attack on what he calls materialistic scientism. Schumacher argues that the current 'maps' that dominate western thought and science are too narrow and based on some false premises.

The book is only in small part a critique, Schumacher spends the greater part of the book putting forward and explaining what he considers to be the four great truths of philosophical map making:

• The world is a hierarchical structure with at least four levels of being.
• The principle of adequateness
• Man's learning relates to four fields of knowledge
• Living in world requires an understanding of two types of problem, 'convergent' and 'divergent'.

Critique of materialist scientism

Schumacher was not at all opposed to science; but he felt that the dominant methodology within science, which he called materialist scientism was flawed; and stood in the way of achieving knowledge in any other arena than inanimate nature.

Schumacher makes a distinction between the descriptive and instructional sciences. Descriptive sciences are primarily concerned with what can be seen or otherwise experienced, e.g. botany. Instructional sciences are concerned with how certain systems work and can be manipulated to produce certain results, e.g. biology. Instructional science is primarily based on evidence gained from experimentation

Materialist scientism is based on the methodology of instructional sciences, which a methodology developed to study and experiment with inanimate matter. Schumacher says that many philosophers of science fail to recognise the difference between descriptive and instructional science; or ascribe these types of science to different stages in the evolution of a science. These philsophers given their preconceptions see instructional science as being the most advanced variety.

Schumacher is particularly offended by the view instructional science is the most advanced; because for Schumacher it is the study of the low hanging fruit, or less metaphorically the study of the lowest and least complex level of being. For Schumacher knowledge gained about the higher levels of being, while far harder to get and far less certain is all the more valuable. Schumacher quotes St Thomas Aquinas approvingly "the slenderest knowledge that may be obtained from higher things is more desirable than the most certain knowledge obtained from lesser things."

Schumacher argues the application of the procedures of instructional science to descriptive sciences is erroneous because in the descriptive fields it is simply not possible to use the experimental techniques of instructional sciences. Experimentation is a very effective methodology when concerned with inanimate matter; but applying it to the living world is liable to destroy or damage living things and systems.

One reason Schumacher uses the term scientism, is because he argues that many people, including some philosophers of science, have misunderstood the theory behind instructional science and believe that it produces truth. But, the instructional sciences are based on induction; and as Karl Popper famously points out induction is not the same as truth. Instructional sciences are primarily concerned only with the parts of truth that are useful for manipulation, i.e. they focus on those instructions which are necessary to reliably produce certain results. This does not mean that an alternative instruction set won't work, or indeed an alternative instruction set based on quite different principles. Instructional sciences produce theories which are useful not true, they produce pragamatic truths.

Schumacher argues that materialist scientism follows a policy of leaving something out if it is in doubt. Consequently, the maps of western science fail to show large 'unorthodox' parts of both theory and practise of science and social science, and a complete disregard for art and 'so-called' occult and paranormal phenomena. Such an approach, Schumacher argues, provides a grey, limited, utilitarian worldview without room for important things like beauty and meaning.

Schumacher observes that the mere mention of occult and paranormal phenomena in academic discussion is seen as a sign of 'mental deficiency' among scientists. Schumacher argues that where there is near total agreement a subject becomes dead; and it is the subjects where there is doubt that require the most intense research. Schumacher believes that what is in doubt should be shown prominently.

Levels of being

For Schumacher one of sciences major mistakes has been rejecting the traditional philosophical views which that the universe is a a hierarchy of being. Schumacher makes an elegant restatement of the traditional chain of being.

Schumacher agrees with the traditional view that there are four kingdoms:

• Mineral
• Plant
• Animal
• Man

Schumacher argues that there are critical differences of kind between each level of being. Between mineral and plant is the phenomenon of life. Between plant and animal consciousness. Between Animal and man self consciousness. Schumacher directs our attention to the fact that science has generally avoided seriously discussing these differences, because they present such difficulties for strictly materialistic science.

Schumacher points out that there are a number of progressions that take place between the levels. The most striking he believes is the movement from passivity to activity, there is a change in the origination of movement between each level:

• Cause (Mineral kingdom)
• Stimulus (Plant kingdom)
• Motive (Animal kingdom)
• Will (Man)

For Schumacher, recognising these different levels of being is vital, because the governing rules of each level is different, which has clear implications for the practise of science.

In contrast to the moral relativism produced by removing the vertical dimension, Schumacher argues that appreciating the different levels of being provides a simple, but clear morality. The traditional view, as Schumacher says, has always been that the proper goal of man is "...to move higher, to develop his highest faculties, to gain knowledge of the higher and highest things, and, if possible, to 'see God'. If he moves lower, develops only his lower faculites, which he shares with the animals, then he makes himself deeply unhappy, even to the point of despair." This is a view shared by all the major religions.

Adequateness

The great truth of adequateness is that nothing can be known without an appropriate instrument in the make up of the knower.

Schumacher explains that the bodily senses are adequate for perceiving inanimate matter; but we need 'intellectual' senses for other levels. He provides the example of a complex book; it means quite different things to an animal, illiterate man, educated man and scientist. Each person possesses different internal 'senses' which means they 'understand' the book in different ways.

Schumacher points out that science is principally based on the sense of sight and looks only at the external manifestation of things.

Four Fields of Knowledge

Schumacher identifies four fields of knowledge for the individual:

1. I -> inner
2. I -> other persons
3. other persons -> I
4. I -> the world

He points out we only have direct access to fields 1 and 4.

Field one is being aware of your feelings and thoughts and most closely correlates to self awareness. Schumacher argues this is fundamentally the study of attention. He differentiates between when your attention is captured by the item is focuses upon, and when you retain your self possession; the difference between being lived and living.

Field two is being aware of what other people are thinking and feeling. Schumacher suggests that actually understanding another individual is something of a 'miracle' when you really think about how difficult it is. The problem of being aware of other people is a four step process and involves 2 'translations'. In order to understand someone else four steps have take place

• The other person must be self aware enough to know what they really feel.
• The other person must translate their thoughts and feelings into words and gestures.
• You must perceive their words and gestures clearly.
• You must then translate these words and gestures and come to the same understandings as the other person.

Despite these problems we do experience clear understanding with other individuals at certain times. People are even able to ignore the words actually said, and say something like "I don't agree with what you are saying; but I do agree with what you mean."

Field three is understanding yourself as an objective phenomenon. This requires you to be aware what other people think of you. Relying on just field one knowledge makes you feel that you are the centre of the universe; while focusing on field three knowledge makes you feel you far more insignificant. Seeking self knowledge via both fields provides a more balanced and accurate self image.

Field four is the behaviourist study of the outside world. Science is highly active in this area of knowledge and many people believe it is the only field in which true knowledge can be gained. For Schumacher, applying the scientific approach is highly appropriate in this field.

Schumacher summarises is views about the four fields of knowledge as follows:

• Only when all four fields of knowledge are cultivated can you have true unity of knowledge. Instruments and methodologies of study should be only applied to the appropriate field they are designed for.
• Clarity of knowledge depends on relating the four fields of knowledge to the four levels of being.
• The instructional sciences should confine their remit to field four, because it is only in the field of appearances that mathematical precision can be obtained. The descriptive sciences, however, are not behaving appropriately if they focus solely on appearances, and must delve in meaning and purpose or they will produce sterile results.
• Self knowledge can only be effectively pursued by balanced study of field one(self awareness) and field three (objective self knowledge).
• Study of field two(understanding other individuals) is dependent on first developing a powerful insight in field one(self awareness).

Two types of problem

Schumacher argues that there are two types of problems in the world:

• convergent
• divergent

For Schumacher recognising which type a problem is is one of the arts of living.

Convergent problems are ones in which attempted solutions gradually converge on one solution or answer. An example of this has been the development of the bicycle. Early attempts at developing man powered vehicle included three and four wheelers; and involved wheels of different sizes. Modern bicycles look much the same nowadays.

Divergent problems are ones which do converge on a single solution. A classic example Schumacher provides is that of education. Is discipline or freedom the best way to teach?

Schumacher sums up the convergent problems are those that are concerned with the non-living universe. While divergent problems are concerned with the universe of the living, and so there is always a degree of inner experience and freedom to contend with. The solution to divergent problems is to transcend them, arguing for instance in education that the real solution is love or caring. Love and discipline works effectively; but so does love and freedom.

Schumacher points out that great literature always concerns itself with divergent problems.

The tasks of man

Schumacher concludes by saying that the tasks of man can be summed up as follows. First, learn from society and tradition. Second, interiorize this knowledge, learn to think for yourself and become self directed. Third, grow beyond the narrow concerns of ego.

References

• A Guide for the Perplexed (1977, ISBN 022401496X; still in paperback, ISBN 0060906111)