Napoleon III

Names
	Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte

Napoleon III
Napoleon III
Emperor of the French
	Portrait by Franz Winterhalter
Reign	2 December, 1852- 4 September, 1870
Predecessor	Louis Eugène Cavaignac (president)
Successor	Empire abolished
Burial	St Michael's Abbey, Farnborough
Issue	Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial
Names
Names
	Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte
House	Bonaparte
Father	Louis Bonaparte
Mother	Hortense de Beauharnais

This article is about the President of the French Republic and Emperor of the French. For the king of Holland, please see Louis Bonaparte

Napoléon III Emperor of the French (Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was President of the French Republic from 1848 to 1851, then 2 December 1851 to 2 December 1852 ruler of Dictatorial Government, then Emperor of the French under the name Napoléon III, to 1870. He was the last monarch to rule France.

Early life

Prince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, as he was known before becoming emperor, was born in Paris. He was the third son of Hortense de Beauharnais, who was the daughter of Napoleon I's wife Josephine de Beauharnais by her first marriage. His biological father remains a subject of speculation, given his unhappily married mother's record of extramarital liaisons. His assumed father, however, was Hortense's husband, Louis Bonaparte, a younger brother of Napoléon I, meaning he was Napoleon I's nephew. During Napoléon I's reign, his parents had been made king and queen of a French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland, meaning that Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte bore the title of prince. After Napoléon I's final defeat and deposition in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, all members of the Bonaparte family were forced into exile, so the child Louis-Napoléon was brought up in Switzerland (living with his mother in the canton of Thurgau) and Germany (receiving his education at the gymnasium school at Augsburg in Bavaria). As a young man he settled in Italy, where he and his elder brother Napoléon Louis espoused liberal politics and became involved in the Carbonari, a resistance organization fighting Austrian domination of Northern Italy. This would later have an effect on his foreign policy.

There remained in France, under both the Bourbon and then the Orleanist monarchy, a Bonapartist movement which wanted to restore a Bonaparte to the throne. According to the law of succession Napoléon I had made when he was Emperor, the claim passed first to his son, the Duke of Reichstadt, known by Bonapartists as Napoleon II, a sickly youth living under virtual imprisonment at the court of Vienna, then to his eldest brother Joseph Bonaparte, then to Louis Bonaparte and his sons. (Louis' elder brother Lucien Bonaparte and his descendants were passed over by the law of succession because Lucien had attracted Napoléon I's displeasure and had opposed Napoléon I's making himself Emperor.) Since Joseph had no male children, and because Louis-Napoléon's own elder brother had died in 1831, the death of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1832 made Louis-Napoléon the Bonaparte heir in the next generation. His uncle and father, relatively old men by now, left to him the active leadership of the Bonapartist cause.

Thus he secretly returned to France in October 1836, for the first time since his childhood, to try to lead a Bonapartist coup at Strasbourg. The coup failed, then tried and absolved and exiled to America, New York when he spent 4 years. Then he secretly returned and he tried again in August 1840, sailing a ship with some hired soldiers into Boulogne, and this time he was caught and imprisoned-to-death (but in relative comfort) in the fortress of the town of Ham in the Department of Somme. While in the Ham fortress his eyesight became poor (according to 'Napoleon III and his Carnival Empire'). During his years of imprisonment he wrote essays and pamphlets that combined his monarchical claim with progressive, even mildly socialist economic proposals, as he defined Bonapartism. In 1844 his uncle Joseph died, making him the direct heir apparent to the Bonaparte claim. He finally managed to escape to Southport, United Kingdom in May 1846 by changing clothes with a mason working at the fortress. (His enemies would later derisively nickname him him "Badinguet", the name of the mason whom he masqueraded as to escape). A month later, his father Louis was dead, making Louis-Napoléon the clear Bonapartist candidate to rule France.

President of the French Republic

Louis-Napoléon lived in Great Britain until the revolution of February 1848 in France deposed Louis Phillipe and established a Republic. He was now free to return to France, which he immediately did. He ran for, and won, a seat in the assembly elected to draft a new constitution, but did not make a great contribution and, as a mediocre public orator, failed to impress his fellow members. Some even thought that, having lived outside of France almost all his life, he spoke French with a slight German accent (Encylopaedia Britannica, 1911).

However, when the constitution of the French Second Republic was finally promulgated and direct elections for the presidency were held on 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon won in a landslide, with 5,454,000 votes (around 75% of votes) against his closest rival Louis Eugène Cavaignac's 1,448,000 votes. Louis-Napoleon had no long political career behind him and was able to depict himself as "all things to all men". The monarchist right (supporters of either the Bourbon or Orleanist royal families) and much of the middle class supported him as the "least worst" candidate, as a man who would restore order, end the instability in France which had continued since the overthrow of the monarchy in February, and prevent a socialist revolution. A good proportion of the industrial working class, on the other hand, were won over by Louis-Napoleon's vague indications of progressive economic views. His overwhelming victory was above all due to the support of the non-politicized rural masses, to whom the name of Bonaparte meant something, contrary to the names of the other contenders for the presidency which were unknown to the masses. Louis-Napoléon's platform was the restoration of order after months of political turmoil, strong government, social consolidation, and national greatness, to which he appealed with all the credit of his name, that of France's national hero Napoléon I who in popular memory was credited with bringing the nation to its pinnacle of military greatness and establishing social stability after the turmoil of the French Revolution

Despite his own landslide victory, Louis-Napoleon was faced with a Parliament dominated by monarchists, who saw his government only as a temporary bridge to a restoration of either the House of Bourbon or of Orleans. Louis-Napoleon governed cautiously during his first years in office, choosing his ministers from among the more "centre-right" Orleanist monarchists, and generally avoiding conflict with the conservative assembly. He courted Catholic support by assisting in the restoration of the Pope's temporal rule in Rome, although he tried to please secularist liberal opinion at the same time by combining this with peremptory demands that the Pope introduce liberal changes to the government of the papal states, including appointing a liberal government and establishing the Code Napoleon there, which angered the Catholic majority in the assembly. He soon made another attempt to gain Catholic support, however, by approving the "Loi Falloux" in 1850, which restored a greater role for the Church in the French educational system.

In the third year of his four-year mandate, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte asked the National Assembly for a revision of the constitution to enable the president to run for re-election, arguing that four years were not enough to implement his political and economic program fully. The Constitution of the Second Republic stated that the Presidency of the Republic was to be held for a single term of four years, with no possibility to run for re-election, a restriction written in the Constitution for fear that a President would abuse his power to transform the Republic into a dictatorship or a sort of life Presidency. The National Assembly, dominated by the Monarchists who wished to see the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, refused to amend the Constitution to allow Louis-Napoleon to stand for re-election. The National Assembly had also changed the electoral law to place restrictions on universal male suffrage, imposing a three year residency requirement which would have prevented the large proportion of the lower class which was itinerant from voting. Although he had originally acquiesced in this law, Louis-Napoleon now used it as a pretext to break with the Assembly and his conservative ministers. He surrounded himself with lieutenants that were completely loyal to him, such as Morny and Persigny, secured the support of the army, and toured the country making populist speeches condemning the assembly and presenting himself as the protector of universal male suffrage.

After months of stalemate, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte staged a coup and seized dictatorial powers on the symbolic date of 2 December 1851, the exact 47th anniversary of Napoléon I's crowning as Emperor, and also the exact 46th anniversary of the famous Battle of Austerlitz. (Hence another of Louis-Napoleon's nicknames: "The Man of December", "l'homme de décembre"). The coup was later declared to have been approved by the French people in a national referendum whose fairness and legality have been questioned ever since. The coup of 1851 definitely alienated Republicans from Napoléon III, and durably tarnished his reputation among later historians. Victor Hugo, who had hitherto shown support toward Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, decided to go into exile after the coup, and became one of the harshest critics of Napoléon III.

Emperor of the French

Authoritarian empire

New constitutional statutes were passed which officially maintained an elected Parliament and restablished universal male suffrage. However, the Parliament now became irrelevant as real power was completely concentrated in the hands of Louis-Napoléon and his bureaucracy. Exactly one year later, on 2 December 1852, after approval by another referendum, the Second Republic was officially ended and the Empire restored, ushering in the Second French Empire. President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoléon III. In a situation that resembles the case of Louis XVIII of France, the numbering of Napoléon's reign treats Napoléon II, who never actually ruled, as a true Emperor (he had been briefly recognized as emperor from 22 June to 7 July 1815). That same year, he began shipping political prisoners and criminals to penal colonies such as Devil's Island or (in milder cases) New Caledonia.

The emperor, hitherto a bachelor, began quickly to look for a wife to produce a legitimate heir. Most of the royal families of Europe were unwilling to marry into the parvenu Bonaparte family, and after rebuffs from Princess Carola of Sweden and from Queen Victoria's German niece Princess Adelaide von Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Napoléon decided to lower his sights somewhat and 'marry for love', choosing the young, beautiful Countess of Teba, Eugénie de Montijo, a Spanish noblewoman with some Scottish ancestry who had been brought up in Paris. On 28 April 1855 Napoléon survived an attempted assassination. In 1856, Eugenie gave birth to a legitimate son and heir, Napoléon Eugène Louis, the Prince Impérial. On 14 January 1858 Napoléon and his wife escaped another assassination attempt, plotted by Felice Orsini.

Liberal empire

Until about 1860, Napoléon's regime was definitely authoritarian, using press censorship to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulating elections, and depriving the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power. In the 1860s, however, Napoléon III made more and more concessions to placate his liberal opponents, beginning with allowing freer debates in Parliament and free reports of parliamentary debates, continuing with the relaxation of press censorship, and culminating in the appointment of the Liberal Émile Ollivier, previously a leader of the opposition to Napoléon's regime, as (effectively) Prime Minister in 1870. This later period is known as the Liberal Empire.

Economic and social policy

The French economy was rapidly modernized under Napoléon III. The industrialization of France during this period helped satisfy both the business interests and the working classes. Downtown Paris was renovated with the clearing of slums, the widening of streets, and the construction of parks. Working class neighborhoods were moved to the outskirts of Paris, where factories utilized their labor.

Napoléon III was a progressive on social matters. In 1853 he established a network of arbitration boards to resolve labor disputes and to prevent strikes. In 1864 he legalized trade unions.

Foreign policy

In a speech in 1852, Napoleon III famously proclaimed that "The Empire means peace" ("L'Empire, c'est la paix"), reassuring foreign governments that the new Emperor Napoleon would not be an aggressor as the previous one had been. However, the promise proved illusory; Napoleon III involved France in a series of conflicts throughout his reign. He was thoroughly determined to follow a strong foreign policy to extend France's power and glory. He was also driven by vague dreams of re-casting the map of Europe, sweeping away small principalities to create unified nation-states, even when this seemed to have little relevance to France's interests. In this he remained influenced by his youthful liberal-nationalist politics as a member of the Carbonari in Italy. These two factors led Napoleon to a certain adventurism in foreign policy, although this was sometimes tempered by pragmatism.

The Crimean War

Napoleon's challenge to Russia's claims to influence in the Ottoman Empire led to France's successful participation in the Crimean War (March 1854–March 1856). During this war Napoleon successfully established a French alliance with Britain, which continued after the war's close. The defeat of Russia and the alliance with Britain gave France increased authority in Europe.

East Asia

Napoleon took the first steps to establishing a French colonial influence in Indochina. He approved the launching of a naval expedition in 1858 to punish the Vietnamese for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries and force the court to accept a French presence in the country. In China, France took part in the Second Opium War along with Great Britain, and in 1860 French troops entered Beijing.

Italy

As President of the Republic, Louis-Napoleon sent French troops to help restore Pope Pius IX as ruler of the Papal States in 1849 after there had been a revolt there in 1848 (although as a Carbonaro he had been involved in plotting a similar revolt in the Papal States during his youth in Italy). This won him support in France from Catholics (although many remained supporters of the Bourbon monarchy at heart). Yet at the same time had sent an emissary to negotiate with the revolutionary Italian nationalist Mazzini. The Catholic Encyclopedia observes: "In this way the difficulties of the future emperor reveal themselves from the beginning; he wished to spare the religious susceptibilities of French Catholics" and yet to support "the national susceptibilities of the Italian revolutionists -- a double aim which explains many an inconsistency" in his policy.

Napoleon remained attached to the ideal of Italian nationalism which he had embraced in his youth, and wished particularly to end Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice (he always nursed a dislike for Austria as the incarnation of conservative, legitimate monarchy and the great barrier to the reconstruction of Europe on nationalist lines, again traceable back to his Carbonari days). As Emperor, Napoleon dreamed of doing this, and thus satisfying his own inclinations and winning over liberal and left-wing opinion in France (which was passionately in favour of Italian unification) while at the same time supporting the Pope in Rome and thus maintaining conservative and Catholic support in France. These contradictory desires were evident in his policy in Italy.

In May–July 1859 Napoléon made a secret deal with Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont, for France to assist in expelling Austria from the Italian peninsula and bringing about a united Italy, or at least a united northern Italy, in exchange for Piedmont ceding to France Savoy and the Nice region (which was destined to become the so-called French Riviera). He went to war with Austria in 1859 and won a victory at Solferino, which resulted in the ceding of Lombardy to Piedmont by Austria (and in return received Savoy and Nice from Piedmont as promised in 1860). After this had been done, however, Napoleon decided to end French involvement in the war. This early withdrawal, however, failed to prevent central Italy, including most of the Papal states, being incorporated into the new Italian state. This led Catholics in France to turn against Napoleon. Napoleon tried to redress the damage by maintaining French troops in the city of Rome itself, which prevented the Italian government seizing it from the Pope, a policy which Napoleon's devoutly Catholic wife Eugenie fervently supported. However, Napoleon on the whole failed to win back Catholic support at home (and made moves to appeal instead to the anti-Catholic left in his domestic policy in the 1860s, most notably by appointing the anti-clerical Victor Duruy Minister for Education, who further secularised the schooling system). Nonetheless, French troops remained in Rome to protect the Pope until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

America, Mexico and Prussia

In the beginning of the 1860s, the objectives of the Emperor in foreign policy had been met: France had scored several military victories in Europe and abroad, the defeat at Waterloo had been exorcised, and France was regarded again as the largest military power in Europe.

During the American Civil War, Napoleon III brought France to the fore of the pro-Confederate European powers. For a time, Napoleon III inched steadily towards officially recognizing the Confederacy, especially after the crash of the cotton industry and his expedition in Mexico. It is also said that he was driven by a desire to keep the Union split. Through 1862, Napoleon III entertained Confederate diplomats, raising hopes that he would unilaterally recognize the Confederacy. The Emperor, however, could move little without the support of Great Britain, and never officially recognized the Confederacy.

Napoleon's adventurism in foreign policy is aptly demonstrated by the French intervention in Mexico (January 1862–March 1867). Napoleon, using as a pretext the Mexican Republic's refusal to pay its foreign debts, planned to establish a French sphere of influence in North America by creating of a French-backed monarchy in Mexico, a project which would be supported by Mexican conservatives tired of the anti-clerical Mexican republic. The United States would be unable to prevent this contravention of the Monroe Doctrine due to the American Civil War, and if, as Napoleon hoped, the Confederates were victorious in that conflict, he believed they would accept the new situation in Mexico.

The monarchy was established under the Habsburg prince Maximillian, with the support of Mexican conservatives and French troops, in 1863. However, the former President Benito Juarez and his Republican forces retreated to the countryside and fought against the French troops and the Mexican monarchists. The Mexican monarchist/French forces won victories up until 1865, but then the tide began to turn, partly due to the fact that the Civil War had now ended in the U.S. and the U.S. government was now able to give practical support the Republicans, supplying them with arms and establishing a naval blockade to prevent French reinforcements arriving from Europe. Napoleon withdrew French troops from Mexico in 1866. This left Maximillian and the Mexican monarchists doomed to defeat in 1867. Despite Napoleon's pleas that he abdicate and leave Mexico, Maximillian refused to abandon the Mexican conservatives who had supported him, and remained alongside them until the bitter end, when he was captured by the Republicans and then shot on 19th June, 1867. The complete failure of the Mexican intervention was a humiliation for Napoleon, and he was widely blamed across Europe for Maximillian's death, having induced Maximillian to accept the Mexican throne on the understanding he would always have French support and then abandoning him when the situation became difficult.

A far more dangerous threat to Napoleon, however, was looming. France saw its dominance on the continent of Europe eroded by Prussia's crushing victory over Austria in June–August 1866. Due in part to his Carbonari past, Napoléon was unable to bring himself to ally with Austria, despite the obvious threat that a victorious Prussia would present to France.

Demise

Napoleon III having a conversation with Bismarck after his defeat in Sedan.

Napoléon III paid the price for his Austrian blunder in 1870 when, spurred by the diplomacy of the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Napoléon began the Franco-Prussian War. This war proved disastrous for France, and was instrumental in giving birth to the German Empire, which would take France's place as the major land power on the continent of Europe until the end of World War I. In battle against Prussia in July 1870 the Emperor was captured at the Battle of Sedan (2 September) and was deposed by the forces of the Third Republic in Paris two days later.

Napoleon spent the last few years of his life in exile in England, with Eugenie and his only son. He died at Chislehurst (Kent), on 9 January 1873. He was haunted to the end by bitter regrets and by painful memories of the battle at which he lost everything; it is said that his last words, addressed to the doctor standing by his deathbed, were: "Were you at Sedan?" ("Etiez-vous à Sedan?") [[1]]

He was originally buried at St. Mary's, the Catholic church in Chislehurst. However, after his son also died in 1879 (fighting in the British Army against the Zulus in South Africa), the bereaved Eugenie decided to build a monastery, to house monks driven out of France by the anti-clerical laws of the Third Republic, which would provide a suitable resting place for her husband and son. Thus in 1888 Napoleon III's body (and that of his son) was moved to the Imperial Crypt at Saint Michael's Abbey, Farnborough, Hampshire, England. Eugenie, who died many years later in 1920, is now buried there with them.

Napoléon stayed at No. 6 Clarendon Square, Royal Leamington Spa between 1838-1839. The building is now called Napoleon House and has a 'Blue plaque' put up by the local council.

Legacy

An important legacy of Napoléon III's reign was the rebuilding of Paris. Part of the design decisions were taken in order to reduce the ability of future revolutionaries to challenge the government by capitalizing on the small, medieval streets of Paris to form barricades. However, this should not overlook the fact that the main reason for the complete transformation of Paris was Napoléon III's desire to modernize Paris based on what he had seen of the modernizations of London during his exile there in the 1840s. With his characteristic social approach to politics, Napoléon III desired to improve health standards and living conditions in Paris with the following goals: build a modern sewage system to improve health, develop new housing with larger apartments for the masses, create green parks all across the city to try and keep working classes away from the pubs on Sunday, etc. Large sections of the city were thus flattened down and the old winding streets were replaced with large thoroughfares and broad avenues. The rebuilding of Paris was directed by Baron Haussmann (1809–1891; Prefect of the Seine département 1853–1870). It was this rebuilding that turned Paris into the city of broad tree-lined boulevards and parks so beloved of tourists today.

Napoléon III also directed the building of the French railway network, which greatly contributed to the development of the coal mining and steel industry in France, radically changing the nature of the French economy, which entered the modern age of large-scale capitalism. The French economy, the second largest in the world at the time (behind Great Britain), experienced a very strong growth during the reign of Napoléon III. Names such as steel tycoon Eugène Schneider or banking mogul James de Rothschild are symbols of the period. Two of France's largest banks, Société Générale and Crédit Lyonnais, still in existence today, were founded during that period. The French stock market also expanded prodigiously, with many coal mining and steel companies issuing stocks. Although largely forgotten by later Republican generations, which only remembered the non-democratic nature of the regime, the economic successes of the Second Empire are today recognized as impressive by historians. The emperor himself, who had spent several years in exile in Victorian Lancashire, was largely influenced by the ideas of the Industrial Revolution in England, and he took particular care of the economic development of the country. He is recognized as the first ruler of France to have taken great care of the economy; previous rulers considering it secondary.

His military adventurism is sometimes considered a fatal blow to the Concert of Europe, which based itself on stability and balance of powers, whereas Napoleon III attempted to rearrange the world map to France's favor even when it involved radical and potentially revolutionary changes in politics.

Opinions

Napoléon III, to this day, has not enjoyed the prestige that Napoléon I enjoyed. Victor Hugo portrayed him as "Napoléon the small" (Napoléon le Petit), a mere mediocrity in contrast with Napoléon I "The Great", presented as a military and administrative genius. In France, such arch-opposition from the age's central literary figure, whose attacks on Napoléon III were obsessive and powerful, made it impossible for a very long time to assess his reign objectively. Karl Marx mocked Napoléon III by saying that history repeats itself: "the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce". Napoléon III has often been seen as an authoritarian but ineffectual leader who brought France into dubious, and ultimately disastrous, foreign military adventures.

However, in the latter part of the 20th century historians have moved to reconsider the image of Napoléon III. The diplomatic, and above all, the economic achievements of the reign are now recognized (although diplomatic blunders must also be admitted - most noticeably, he was no match in diplomatic shrewdness for Bismarck). Historians have also emphasized his attention to the fate of working classes and poor people. His book Extinction du paupérisme ("Extinction of pauperism"), which he wrote while imprisoned at the Fort of Ham in 1844, contributed greatly to his popularity among the working classes and thus his election win in 1848. Throughout his reign the emperor showed concerns to alleviate the sufferings of the poor in the empire, on occasion breaching the nineteenth-century economic orthodoxy of complete laissez-faire and using state resources or interfering in the market. Among other things, the Emperor granted the right to strike to French workers in 1864, despite intense opposition from corporate lobbies.

The Emperor also ordered the creation of three large parks in Paris (Parc Monceau, Parc Montsouris, and Parc des Buttes-Chaumont) with the clear intention of offering them for poor working families as an alternative to the pub (bistrot) on Sundays, much as Victoria Park in London was also built with the same social motives in mind.

For his combination of these economic ideas with monarchical pomp and an active foreign and military policy, Napoléon III has been called a "socialist on horseback".^{[citation needed]}

Notes

References

Thompson, J.M. Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965.

Movie portrayals

Leon Ames played him in Suez (1938), although Loretta Young as Eugenie is much more highlighted.
Claude Rains shows him in Juarez (1939) as a weak man ready to betray Maximilian in Mexico.
Jerome Cowan plays Napoleon III in 'The song of Bernadette' (1943).

Political offices
Napoleon III House of Bonaparte Born: 20 April 1808 Died: 9 January 1873
Preceded by Louis-Eugène Cavaignac	President of the Second Republic 20 Dec. 1848– 2 Dec. 1852	Second French Empire declared
Preceded by Louis-Eugène Cavaignac	French Head of State 20 December 1848–4 September 1870	Succeeded by Louis Jules Trochu
Regnal titles
Vacant Title last held by Napoleon II	Emperor of the French 2 December 1852–4 September 1870	Title retired
Titles in pretence
Preceded by Louis Bonaparte	— TITULAR — Emperor of the French Prince Napoléon Line 1846–2 December 1852	Empire declared
New title Empire dissolved	— TITULAR — Emperor of the French Prince Napoléon Line 4 September 1870–9 January 1873	Succeeded by Napoleon IV Eugene Louis