Jump to content

Mental time travel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Chronesthesia)

In psychology, mental time travel is the capacity to mentally reconstruct personal events from the past (episodic memory) as well as to imagine possible scenarios in the future (episodic foresight/episodic future thinking). The term was coined by Thomas Suddendorf and Michael Corballis,[1] building on Endel Tulving's work on episodic memory.[2] (Tulving proposed the alternative term chronesthesia.[3])

Mental time travel has been studied by psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, philosophers and in a variety of other academic disciplines.[4][5] Major areas of interest include the nature of the relationship between memory and foresight,[6][7] the evolution of the ability (including whether it is uniquely human or shared with other animals),[8][9] its development in young children,[10][11] its underlying brain mechanisms,[12][13] as well as its potential links to consciousness,[14] the self,[15] and free will.[16]

Overview, terminology, and relationship to other cognitive capacities

[edit]

Declarative memory refers to the capacity to store and retrieve information that can be explicitly expressed, and consists of both facts or knowledge about the world (semantic memory) and autobiographical details about one's own experiences (episodic memory).[17] Tulving (1985) originally suggested that episodic memory involved a kind of 'autonoetic' ('self-knowing') consciousness that required the first-person subjective experience of previously lived events, whereas semantic memory is associated with 'noetic' (knowing) consciousness but does not require such mental simulation.[18]

It has become increasingly clear that both semantic and episodic memory are integral for thinking about the future.[19][20] Mental time travel, however, specifically refers to the 'autonoetic' systems, and thus selectively comprises episodic memory and episodic foresight.

The close link between episodic memory and episodic foresight has been established with evidence of their shared developmental trajectory,[21] similar impairment profiles in neuropsychiatric disease and in brain damage,[22][23][24] phenomenological analyses,[25] and with neuroimaging.[26] Mental time travel may be one of several processes enabled by a general scenario building or construction system in the brain.[22][27][28] This general capacity to generate and reflect on mental scenarios has been compared to a theatre in the mind that depends on the working together of a host of components.[13]

Investigations have been conducted into diverse aspects of mental time travel, including individual differences relating to personality,[29] its instantiation in artificial intelligence systems,[30] and its relationship with theory of mind[31] and mind-wandering.[32] The study of mental time travel in general terms is also related to – but distinct from – the study of the way individuals differ in terms of their future orientation,[33] time perspective,[34] and temporal self-continuity.[35]

Brain regions involved

[edit]

Various neuroimaging studies have elucidated the brain systems underlying the capacity for mental time travel in adults. Early fMRI studies on the topic revealed a number of close correspondences between remembering past experiences and imagining future experiences in brain activity.[26]

fMRI mapping of brain regions

[edit]

Addis et al. conducted an fMRI study to examine neural regions mediating construction and elaboration of past and future events.[36]

The elaboration phase, unlike the construction phase, has overlap in the cortical areas comprising the autobiographical memory retrieval network. In this study, it was also found that the left hippocampus and the right middle occipital gyrus were significantly activated during past and future event construction, while the right hippocampus was significantly deactivated during past event construction. It was only activated during the creation of future events.[citation needed]

Episodic future thinking involves multiple component processes: retrieval and integration of relevant information from memory, processing of subjective time, and self-referential processing.[37] D'Argembeau et al.'s study found that the ventral medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex are the most activated areas when imagining future events that are relevant to one's personal goals than to unrelated ones. This shows that these brain regions play a role in personal goal processing, which is a critical feature of episodic future thinking.[citation needed]

Brain regions involved in the 'what' and 'where' of an event

[edit]

Cabeza et al. conducted a positron emission tomography (PET) scan study on a group of human test subjects to identify the brain regions involved in temporal memory, which is based on a linear progression of events. Since 'recollecting a past episode involves remembering not only what happened but also when it happened', PET scans were used to find the areas of the brain that were activated when trying to remember a certain word in a sequence.[38] The results show that temporal-order memory of past events involves the frontal and posterior brain regions and item retrieval shows neural activity in the medial temporal and basal fore brain regions.[39]

Evolution and human uniqueness

[edit]

The ability to travel mentally in time – especially into the future – has been highlighted as a potential prime mover in human evolution, enabling humans to prepare, plan and shape the future to their advantage.[8] However, the question of whether or to what extent animals other than human beings can engage in mental time travel has remained controversial.[40][41]

One proposal, the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis,[1][42][43][44] posits that non-human animals cannot act upon drive states they do not currently possess, for example seeking out water while currently fully quenched. Other proposals suggest that different species may have some capacities, but are limited because of shortcomings in a range of component capacities of mental scenario building and imagination.[19] A number of studies have claimed to have demonstrated mental time travel in animals including, most notably, various great apes, crows, ravens, and western scrub jays,[45][46][47][48] but these have been subjected to a number of criticisms and simpler alternative explanations have been proposed for the results.[49][50][51] This debate is ongoing.[8]

If mental time travel is unique to humans, then it must have emerged over the last 6 million years since the line leading to modern humans split from the line leading to modern chimpanzees. Perhaps the first hard evidence for the evolution of mental time travel in humans comes in the form of Acheulean bifacial handaxes associated with Homo erectus. Acheulean tools are complex and appear to have required advanced planning to create.[52][53] There is also evidence that they were often crafted in one location and then taken elsewhere for repeated use.[54]

A number of important adaptive functions have been identified that rely to some degree on the capacity to remember the past and imagine the future.[55][56] These functions include predicting future emotional reactions (affective forecasting),[57] deliberate practice,[58] intertemporal choice,[59] navigation,[60] prospective memory,[61] counterfactual thinking,[62][63] and planning.[64]

Episodic-like memory and planning for the future in great apes

[edit]

Osvath et al. conducted a study on apes to show that they have the ability of foresight. The study consisted of testing for self-control, associative learning, and envisioning in chimpanzees and orangutans through a series of experiments.[65] Critics questioned whether these animals truly exhibited mental time travel, or whether it was associative learning that caused them to behave as they did. The Bischof-Kohler hypothesis says that animals cannot anticipate future needs, and this study by Osvath tried to disprove the hypothesis.[citation needed]

The scientists showed that when the apes were presented with a food item in conjunction with a utensil that could be used to actually eat that particular food, these animals chose the utensil instead of food. They anticipated a future need for the utensil that overcame the current want for just a food reward. This is an example of mental time travel in animals. It was not a result of associative learning, that they actually chose the utensil instead of the food reward, since the scientists ran another experiment to account for that. Other examples, such as food caching by birds, may be examples of mental time travel in non-humans. Even survival instinct by certain animals such as elephants, in response to imminent danger, could involve mental time travel mechanisms.[citation needed]

Another study to show that great apes have the ability of foresight was conducted by Martin-Ordas G. et al. These scientists were able to show that "apes remember in an integrated fashion what, where and when" a particular event had happened.[66] Two experiments were conducted in this study, the first being an investigation of the content of the memories of apes i.e. could these animals remember when and where two types of food they were shown before are hidden. The second experiment explored the structure of the memories. It was found that the apes' memories were formed in an integrated what–where–when structure. All these findings suggest that it is not instinctive or learning predispositions that made the animals behave the way they did, but rather that they have the ability to mentally time travel. However, comparative psychologists are divided about this conclusion.[8]

Episodic-like memory in western scrub-jays

[edit]

In their study to show that birds exhibit episodic-like memory, Clayton et al. used 3 behavioral criteria: content, structure, and flexibility, to decide whether the food caching habits of these birds were evidence of their ability to recall the past and plan for the future.[67] Content involved remembering what happened based on a specific past experience. Structure required the formation of a 'what-where-when' representation of the event. Finally, flexibility was used to see how well the information could be organized and re-organized, based on facts and experiences. Mental time travel involves the use of both episodic future thinking and semantic knowledge. This study also contradicts the Bischof-Kohler hypothesis by showing that some animals may mentally time travel into the future or back to the past. However this interpretation has remained controversial.[8]

Development in children

[edit]

Studies into the development of mental time travel in infancy suggest that the involved component processes come online piece by piece. Most of the required psychological subcomponents appear to be available by approximately age four.[10] This includes the fundamental capacity to prepare for two mutually exclusive possible future events, which appears to develop between the ages of 3 and 5.[68]

Two and three-year-old children can report some information about upcoming events, and by ages four and five, children can talk more clearly about future situations.[69] However, there is concern that children may understand more than they can articulate, and that they may say things without fully understanding. Thus, researchers have tried to examine future-oriented action.[70] A carefully controlled study found that four-year-olds could already remember a specific problem they saw in a different room sufficiently enough to prepare for its future solution.[71] These results suggest that children by the end of the preschool years have developed some fundamental capacity for foresight, capacities that continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence.[72]

Measurement

[edit]

Studies of mental time travel require the measurement of both episodic memory and episodic foresight.

Episodic memory

[edit]

Episodic memory is typically measured in human adults by asking people to report or describe past events that they had experienced. Many studies provide participants with information at one point in the study and then assess their memory for this information at a later point in the study. The advantage of these studies is that they allow the accuracy of recall to be assessed. However, Cheke and Clayton found that such different measurements of memory do not mutually correspond enough and may therefore capture different facets of memory.[73] A more general limitation with studies in this field is that they fail to capture people's actual memories for real-life events, just like in other studied animals.

Many studies focus on asking people to recall episodes from their own lives. Some of them attempt to verify the accuracy of recall by comparing participants' memories to those of family, friends or relatives who experienced the same event,[74] or in some cases by comparing peoples' memories of an event to public information about the event.[75] However it is not always easy to verify the accuracy of recall, so many measures of episodic memory do not do this, focusing instead on aspects of people's verbal descriptions of their memories.

Three commonly used measures that do not verify the accuracy of people's memories are as follows:

  1. Dritschel et al. adapted the Controlled Oral Word Association Test to assess the fluency with which people recall personal autobiographical episodes in specific given time periods (e.g., last week, last year, last 5 years, etc.) in a specific time limit (e.g., 1 min).[76]
  2. Baddeley and Wilson used a 4-point scale with which to rate participants' memories as (3) specific, (2) intermediate, (1) general, and (0) nil, based on the level of the detail provided in their description.[77]
  3. Levine and colleagues designed the Autobiographical Interview to distinguish between episodic and semantic components of episodic memories based on participants' verbal descriptions.[78]

Episodic foresight

[edit]

Miloyan and McFarlane performed a systematic review of episodic foresight measurement instruments used in human adults and found that most of these measures were adapted from measures of episodic memory.[79]

  1. The measure by Dritschel et al.[76] based on the Controlled Oral Word Association Test was adapted by MacLeod and colleagues to assess episodic foresight.[80]
  2. Williams et al. adapted the 4-point scale from Baddeley and Wilson to assess episodic foresight.[81]
  3. The Autobiographical Interview by Levine and colleagues which was designed to distinguish the episodic and semantic components of episodic memories was adapted by Addis and colleagues to measure episodic foresight.[82]

The authors of the systematic review noted that a limitation of all such episodic foresight measures is that they do not compare people's simulation of future events to objective preparatory behaviors or to the actual occurrence of future events.[79] Thus, none of the available measures verify the accuracy or relevance of people's imaginings. This is in contrast to studies of episodic foresight in children and animals that require participants to demonstrate episodic foresight with behaviors to compensate for their lack of verbal ability.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Suddendorf T, Corballis MC (May 1997). "Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind". Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs. 123 (2): 133–67. PMID 9204544.
  2. ^ Tulving E (1985). "Memory and Consciousness". Canadian Psychology. 26: 1–12. doi:10.1037/h0080017.
  3. ^ Tulving E (2002). "Chronesthesia: Conscious Awareness of Subjective Time". Principles of Frontal Lobe Function. pp. 311–325. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0020. ISBN 978-0-19-513497-1.
  4. ^ Bulley A (2018). "The History and Future of Human Prospection". Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture. 2: 75. doi:10.26613/esic.2.1.75. S2CID 134294187.
  5. ^ Klein SB (January 2013). "The complex act of projecting oneself into the future". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science. 4 (1): 63–79. doi:10.1002/wcs.1210. PMID 26304175.
  6. ^ Suddendorf T (January 2010). "Episodic memory versus episodic foresight: Similarities and differences". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science. 1 (1): 99–107. doi:10.1002/wcs.23. PMID 26272843.
  7. ^ Klein SB (2018). "Autonoetic consciousness: Reconsidering the role of episodic memory in future-oriented self-projection". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 69 (2): 381–401. doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1007150. PMID 25606713. S2CID 14444260.
  8. ^ a b c d e Suddendorf T (2013). The gap: the science of what separates us from other animals. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03014-9.[page needed]
  9. ^ Cheke LG, Clayton NS (November 2010). "Mental time travel in animals". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science. 1 (6): 915–930. doi:10.1002/wcs.59. PMID 26271786.
  10. ^ a b Suddendorf T, Redshaw J (August 2013). "The development of mental scenario building and episodic foresight". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1296 (1): 135–53. Bibcode:2013NYASA1296..135S. doi:10.1111/nyas.12189. PMID 23855564. S2CID 33641357.
  11. ^ Atance CM, o'Neill DK (2005). "The emergence of episodic future thinking in humans". Learning and Motivation. 36 (2): 126–144. doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2005.02.003.
  12. ^ Schacter DL, Addis DR, Hassabis D, Martin VC, Spreng RN, Szpunar KK (November 2012). "The future of memory: remembering, imagining, and the brain". Neuron. 76 (4): 677–94. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.11.001. PMC 3815616. PMID 23177955.
  13. ^ a b Irish M (2016). "Semantic Memory as the Essential Scaffold for Future-Oriented Mental Time Travel". In Michaelian K, Klein SB, Szpunar KK (eds.). Seeing the Future: Theoretical Perspectives on Future-oriented Mental Time Travel. Oxford University Press. pp. 389–408. ISBN 978-0-19-024153-7.
  14. ^ D'Argembeau A, Van der Linden M (September 2012). "Predicting the phenomenology of episodic future thoughts". Consciousness and Cognition. 21 (3): 1198–206. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.05.004. hdl:2268/130764. PMID 22742997. S2CID 14972501.
  15. ^ D'Argembeau A, Lardi C, Van der Linden M (2012). "Self-defining future projections: exploring the identity function of thinking about the future". Memory. 20 (2): 110–20. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.647697. hdl:2268/107158. PMID 22292616. S2CID 9399136.
  16. ^ Seligman ME, Railton P, Baumeister RF, Sripada C (March 2013). "Navigating into the Future or Driven by the Past". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 8 (2): 119–41. doi:10.1177/1745691612474317. PMID 26172493. S2CID 17506436.
  17. ^ Squire LR (1992). "Declarative and nondeclarative memory: multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 4 (3): 232–43. doi:10.1162/jocn.1992.4.3.232. PMID 23964880. S2CID 15095727.
  18. ^ Tulving E (1985). Elements of Episodic Memory. Oxford University. ISBN 978-0-19-852125-9.[page needed]
  19. ^ a b Suddendorf T, Corballis MC (June 2007). "The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans?" (PDF). The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 30 (3): 299–313, discussion 313–51. doi:10.1017/S0140525X07001975. PMID 17963565.
  20. ^ Irish M, Addis DR, Hodges JR, Piguet O (July 2012). "Considering the role of semantic memory in episodic future thinking: evidence from semantic dementia". Brain. 135 (Pt 7): 2178–91. doi:10.1093/brain/aws119. PMID 22614246.
  21. ^ Suddendorf T, Busby J (2005). "Making decisions with the future in mind: Developmental and comparative identification of mental time travel". Learning and Motivation. 36 (2): 110–125. doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2005.02.010.
  22. ^ a b Schacter DL, Addis DR (May 2007). "The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 362 (1481): 773–86. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2087. PMC 2429996. PMID 17395575.
  23. ^ Tulving E (2002). "Episodic memory: from mind to brain". Annual Review of Psychology. 53: 1–25. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114. PMID 11752477.
  24. ^ Klein SB, Loftus J, Kihlstrom JF (2002). "Memory and Temporal Experience: The Effects of Episodic Memory Loss on an Amnesic Patient's Ability to Remember the Past and Imagine the Future". Social Cognition. 20 (5): 353–379. doi:10.1521/soco.20.5.353.21125. S2CID 19168428.
  25. ^ D'Argembeau A, Van der Linden M (December 2004). "Phenomenal characteristics associated with projecting oneself back into the past and forward into the future: influence of valence and temporal distance" (PDF). Consciousness and Cognition (Submitted manuscript). 13 (4): 844–58. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2004.07.007. PMID 15522635. S2CID 37248343.
  26. ^ a b Okuda J, Fujii T, Ohtake H, Tsukiura T, Tanji K, Suzuki K, Kawashima R, Fukuda H, Itoh M, Yamadori A (August 2003). "Thinking of the future and past: the roles of the frontal pole and the medial temporal lobes". NeuroImage. 19 (4): 1369–80. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00179-4. PMID 12948695. S2CID 25549031.
  27. ^ Cheng S, Werning M, Suddendorf T (January 2016). "Dissociating memory traces and scenario construction in mental time travel" (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 60: 82–9. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.11.011. PMID 26627866. S2CID 35479839.
  28. ^ Hassabis D, Maguire EA (May 2009). "The construction system of the brain". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 364 (1521): 1263–71. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0296. PMC 2666702. PMID 19528007.
  29. ^ Quoidbach J, Hansenne M, Mottet C (December 2008). "Personality and mental time travel: a differential approach to autonoetic consciousness". Consciousness and Cognition (Submitted manuscript). 17 (4): 1082–92. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.04.002. hdl:2268/2368. PMID 18508283. S2CID 5654286.
  30. ^ Pezzulo G (2008). "Coordinating with the Future: The Anticipatory Nature of Representation". Minds and Machines. 18 (2): 179–225. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.465.1691. doi:10.1007/s11023-008-9095-5. S2CID 3071800.
  31. ^ Gaesser B, DiBiase HD, Kensinger EA (September 2017). "A role for affect in the link between episodic simulation and prosociality". Memory. 25 (8): 1052–1062. doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1254246. PMID 27841093. S2CID 4765256.
  32. ^ Smallwood J, Schooler JW (January 2015). "The science of mind wandering: empirically navigating the stream of consciousness". Annual Review of Psychology. 66: 487–518. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331. PMID 25293689.
  33. ^ Steinberg L, Graham S, O'Brien L, Woolard J, Cauffman E, Banich M (2009). "Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting". Child Development. 80 (1): 28–44. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.537.1994. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.x. PMID 19236391.
  34. ^ Zimbardo PG, Keough KA, Boyd JN (1997). "Present time perspective as a predictor of risky driving". Personality and Individual Differences. 23 (6): 1007–1023. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00113-X.
  35. ^ Ersner-Hershfield H, Wimmer GE, Knutson B (March 2009). "Saving for the future self: neural measures of future self-continuity predict temporal discounting". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 4 (1): 85–92. doi:10.1093/scan/nsn042. PMC 2656877. PMID 19047075.
  36. ^ Addis DR, Wong AT, Schacter DL (April 2007). "Remembering the past and imagining the future: common and distinct neural substrates during event construction and elaboration". Neuropsychologia. 45 (7): 1363–77. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.016. PMC 1894691. PMID 17126370.
  37. ^ D'Argembeau A, Stawarczyk D, Majerus S, Collette F, Van der Linden M, Feyers D, Maquet P, Salmon E (August 2010). "The neural basis of personal goal processing when envisioning future events" (PDF). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 22 (8): 1701–13. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21314. PMID 19642887. S2CID 32824508.
  38. ^ Cabeza R, Mangels J, Nyberg L, Habib R, Houle S, McIntosh AR, Tulving E (October 1997). "Brain regions differentially involved in remembering what and when: a PET study". Neuron. 19 (4): 863–70. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80967-8. PMID 9354332. S2CID 924382.
  39. ^ Cabeza, Roberto; Mangels, Jennifer; Nyberg, Lars; Habib, Reza; Houle, Sylvain; McIntosh, Anthony R; Tulving, Endel (1 October 1997). "Brain Regions Differentially Involved in Remembering What and When: a PET Study". Neuron. 19 (4): 863–870. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80967-8. ISSN 0896-6273. PMID 9354332. S2CID 924382.
  40. ^ Roberts WA (May 2002). "Are animals stuck in time?". Psychological Bulletin. 128 (3): 473–89. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.3.473. PMID 12002698. S2CID 7729195.
  41. ^ Redshaw J, Bulley A (2018). "Future-Thinking in Animals: Capacities and Limits". In Oettingen G, Sevincer AT, Gollwitzer PM (eds.). The Psychology of Thinking about the Future. Guilford Publications. pp. 31–51. ISBN 978-1-4625-3441-8.
  42. ^ Bischof N (1985). Das Rätsel Ödipus [The riddle of Oedipus] (in German). Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-02962-9.[page needed]
  43. ^ Bischof-Köhler D (1985). "Zur Phylogenese menschlicher Motivation" [On the phylogenesis of human motivation]. In Eckensberger LH, Baltes MM (eds.). Emotion und Reflexivität [Emotion and reflexivity] (in German). München: Urban & Schwarzenberg. pp. 3–47. ISBN 978-3-541-14251-4.
  44. ^ Köhler W (2013). The mentality of apes. Read Books.[page needed]
  45. ^ Kabadayi C, Osvath M (July 2017). "Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering". Science. 357 (6347): 202–204. Bibcode:2017Sci...357..202K. doi:10.1126/science.aam8138. PMID 28706072.
  46. ^ Mulcahy NJ, Call J (May 2006). "Apes save tools for future use". Science. 312 (5776): 1038–40. Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1038M. doi:10.1126/science.1125456. PMID 16709782. S2CID 8468216.
  47. ^ Osvath M, Osvath H (October 2008). "Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and orangutan (Pongo abelii) forethought: self-control and pre-experience in the face of future tool use". Animal Cognition. 11 (4): 661–74. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.183.6296. doi:10.1007/s10071-008-0157-0. PMID 18553113. S2CID 207050786.
  48. ^ Raby CR, Alexis DM, Dickinson A, Clayton NS (February 2007). "Planning for the future by western scrub-jays". Nature. 445 (7130): 919–21. Bibcode:2007Natur.445..919R. doi:10.1038/nature05575. PMID 17314979. S2CID 4405897.
  49. ^ Suddendorf T, Corballis MC, Collier-Baker E (September 2009). "How great is great ape foresight?". Animal Cognition. 12 (5): 751–4. doi:10.1007/s10071-009-0253-9. PMID 19565281. S2CID 7364241.
  50. ^ Suddendorf T (May 2006). "Behavior. Foresight and evolution of the human mind". Science. 312 (5776): 1006–7. doi:10.1126/science.1129217. JSTOR 3846137. PMID 16709773. S2CID 29830044.
  51. ^ Redshaw J, Taylor AH, Suddendorf T (November 2017). "Flexible Planning in Ravens?" (PDF). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 21 (11): 821–822. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2017.09.001. PMID 28927634. S2CID 20496597.
  52. ^ Wynn T, Coolidge FL (July 2016). "Archeological insights into hominin cognitive evolution". Evolutionary Anthropology. 25 (4): 200–13. doi:10.1002/evan.21496. PMID 27519459. S2CID 12334658.
  53. ^ Ambrose SH (2010). "Coevolution of Composite-Tool Technology, Constructive Memory, and Language". Current Anthropology. 51: S135 – S147. doi:10.1086/650296. S2CID 142657600.
  54. ^ Hallos J (August 2005). ""15 Minutes of Fame": exploring the temporal dimension of middle pleistocene lithic technology". Journal of Human Evolution. 49 (2): 155–79. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.628.4393. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.03.002. PMID 15964609.
  55. ^ Schacter DL, Benoit RG, Szpunar KK (October 2017). "Episodic Future Thinking: Mechanisms and Functions". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 17: 41–50. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.06.002. PMC 5675579. PMID 29130061.
  56. ^ Suddendorf T, Bulley A, Miloyan B (2018). "Prospection and natural selection". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 24: 26–31. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.01.019. S2CID 53180176.
  57. ^ Gilbert DT, Wilson TD (September 2007). "Prospection: experiencing the future". Science. 317 (5843): 1351–4. Bibcode:2007Sci...317.1351G. doi:10.1126/science.1144161. PMID 17823345. S2CID 19753427.
  58. ^ Suddendorf T, Brinums M, Imuta K (2015). "Shaping one's future self: the development of deliberate practice". In Michaelian K, Klein SB, Szpunar KK (eds.). Seeing the future: theoretical perspectives on future-oriented mental time travel. Oxford University Press. pp. 343–66. ISBN 978-0-19-024154-4.
  59. ^ Bulley A, Henry J, Suddendorf T (2016). "Prospection and the present moment: The role of episodic foresight in intertemporal choices between immediate and delayed rewards". Review of General Psychology. 20: 29–47. doi:10.1037/gpr0000061. S2CID 84178870.
  60. ^ Arnold AE, Iaria G, Ekstrom AD (December 2016). "Mental simulation of routes during navigation involves adaptive temporal compression". Cognition. 157: 14–23. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.08.009. PMC 5143185. PMID 27568586.
  61. ^ Terrett G, Rose NS, Henry JD, Bailey PE, Altgassen M, Phillips LH, Kliegel M, Rendell PG (2018). "The relationship between prospective memory and episodic future thinking in younger and older adulthood". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 69 (2): 310–23. doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1054294. PMID 26018341. S2CID 18755775.
  62. ^ Schacter DL, Benoit RG, De Brigard F, Szpunar KK (January 2015). "Episodic future thinking and episodic counterfactual thinking: intersections between memory and decisions". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 117: 14–21. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.12.008. PMC 4071128. PMID 24373942.
  63. ^ Byrne RM (October 2002). "Mental models and counterfactual thoughts about what might have been". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 6 (10): 426–431. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01974-5. PMID 12413576. S2CID 18582118.
  64. ^ Klein SB, Robertson TE, Delton AW (January 2010). "Facing the future: memory as an evolved system for planning future acts". Memory & Cognition. 38 (1): 13–22. doi:10.3758/MC.38.1.13. PMC 3553218. PMID 19966234.
  65. ^ Osvath M (September 2010). "Great ape foresight is looking great". Animal Cognition. 13 (5): 777–81. doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0336-7. PMID 20607575. S2CID 6931050.
  66. ^ Martin-Ordas G, Haun D, Colmenares F, Call J (March 2010). "Keeping track of time: evidence for episodic-like memory in great apes". Animal Cognition. 13 (2): 331–40. doi:10.1007/s10071-009-0282-4. PMC 2822233. PMID 19784852.
  67. ^ Clayton NS, Bussey TJ, Dickinson A (August 2003). "Can animals recall the past and plan for the future?". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 4 (8): 685–91. doi:10.1038/nrn1180. PMID 12894243. S2CID 11064341.
  68. ^ Redshaw J, Suddendorf T (July 2016). "Children's and Apes' Preparatory Responses to Two Mutually Exclusive Possibilities". Current Biology. 26 (13): 1758–1762. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.062. PMID 27345164.
  69. ^ Hudson JA (2006). "The Development of Future Time Concepts Through Mother-Child Conversation". Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 52: 70–95. doi:10.1353/mpq.2006.0005. S2CID 144754946.
  70. ^ Atance CM (2015). "Young Children's Thinking About the Future". Child Development Perspectives. 9 (3): 178–182. doi:10.1111/cdep.12128.
  71. ^ Suddendorf T, Nielsen M, von Gehlen R (January 2011). "Children's capacity to remember a novel problem and to secure its future solution". Developmental Science. 14 (1): 26–33. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00950.x. PMID 21159085.
  72. ^ Prabhakar J, Coughlin C, Ghetti S (2016). "The Neurocognitive Development of Episodic Prospection and its Implications for Academic Achievement". Mind, Brain, and Education. 10 (3): 196–206. doi:10.1111/mbe.12124.
  73. ^ Cheke LG, Clayton NS (August 2013). "Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults?". Learning and Memory. 20 (9): 491–8. doi:10.1101/lm.030502.113. PMID 23955172.
  74. ^ Tranel D, Jones RD (January 2006). "Knowing "what" knowing "when"". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 28 (1): 43–66. doi:10.1080/13803390490919344. PMID 16448975. S2CID 23283480.
  75. ^ Hirst W, Phelphs EA, Buckner RL, Budson AE, Cuc A, Gabrieli JD, Johnson MK, Lyle KB, Lustig C, Mather M, Meksin R, Mitchell KJ, Ochsner KN, Schacter DL, Simons JS, Vaidya CJ (May 2009). "Long-term memory for the terrorist attack of 11 September: Flashbulb memories, event memories, and the factors that influence their retention". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 138 (2): 161–76. doi:10.1037/a0015527. PMC 2925254. PMID 19397377.
  76. ^ a b Dritschel BH, Williams JM, Baddeley AD, Nimmo-Smith I (March 1992). "Autobiographical fluency: A method for the study of personal memory". Memory and Cognition. 20 (2): 133–40. doi:10.3758/bf03197162. PMID 1565011.
  77. ^ Baddeley A, Wilson B (1986). "Amnesia, autobiographical memory, and confabulation". In Rubin D (ed.). Autobiographical memory. pp. 225–252. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511558313.020. ISBN 9780521303224.
  78. ^ Levine B, Svoboda E, Hay JF, Winocur G, Moscovitch M (December 2002). "Aging and autobiographical memory: Dissociating episodic from semantic retrieval". Psychology and Aging. 17 (4): 677–89. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.677. PMID 12507363.
  79. ^ a b Miloyan B, McFarlane KA (2019). "The measurement of episodic foresight: A systematic review of assessment instruments". Cortex. 117: 351–370. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.08.018. PMID 30274668. S2CID 52899584.
  80. ^ MacLeod AK, Tata P, Tyrer P, Schmidt U, Davidson K, Thompson S (November 2005). "Hopelessness and positive and negative future thinking in parasuicide". British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 44 (4): 495–504. doi:10.1348/014466505x35704. PMID 16368029.
  81. ^ Williams JM, Ellis NC, Tyers C, Healy H, Rose G, MacLeod AK (January 1996). "The specificity of autobiographical memory and imageability of the future". Memory and Cognition. 24 (1): 116–25. doi:10.3758/bf03197278. PMID 8822164.
  82. ^ Addis DR, Wong AT, Schacter DL (January 2008). "Age-related changes in the episodic simulation of future events". Psychological Science. 19 (1): 33–41. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02043.x. PMID 18181789. S2CID 205573448.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mental_time_travel&oldid=1246614172"