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Bitter orange

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(Đổi hướng từ Citrus aurantium)
For the Chinese bitter orange, see trifoliate orange. For the Asian bitter orange, see daidai.

Citrus × aurantium
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species:
C. × aurantium
Binomial name
Citrus × aurantium
L., 1753[1]
Synonyms[2]
List
    • Aurantium × acre Mill.
    • Aurantium × bigarella Poit. & Turpin
    • Aurantium × corniculatum Mill.
    • Aurantium × corniculatum Poit. & Turpin
    • Aurantium × coronatum Poit. & Turpin
    • Aurantium × distortum Mill.
    • Aurantium × humile Mill.
    • Aurantium × myrtifolium Descourt.
    • Aurantium × orientale Mill.
    • Aurantium × silvestre Pritz.
    • Aurantium × sinense (L.) Mill.
    • Aurantium × variegatum Barb.Rodr.
    • Aurantium × vulgare (Risso) M. Gómez
    • Citrus bigaradia Risso & Poit.
    • Citrus humilis (Mill.) Poir.
    • Citrus × amara Link
    • Citrus × benikoji Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × bigaradia Loisel.
    • Citrus × calot Lag.
    • Citrus × canaliculata Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × changshan-huyou Y.B.Chang
    • Citrus × communis Poit. & Turpin
    • Citrus × dulcimedulla Pritz.
    • Citrus × dulcis Pers.
    • Citrus × florida Salisb.
    • Citrus × funadoko Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × fusca Lour.
    • Citrus × glaberrima Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × humilis (Mill.) Poir.
    • Citrus × intermedia Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × iwaikan Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × iyo Yu.Tanaka nom. inval.
    • Citrus × kotokan Hayata
    • Citrus × medioglobosa Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × mitsuharu Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × myrtifolia (Ker Gawl.) Raf.
    • Citrus × natsudaidai (Yu.Tanaka) Hayata
    • Citrus × omikanto Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × pseudogulgul Shirai
    • Citrus × rumphii Risso
    • Citrus × sinograndis Yu.Tanaka nom. inval.
    • Citrus × subcompressa (Tanaka) Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × sulcata Yu.Tanaka nom. inval.
    • Citrus × taiwanica Yu.Tanaka & Shimada
    • Citrus × tengu Yu.Tanaka nom. inval.
    • Citrus × tosa-asahi Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × vulgaris Risso
    • Citrus × yatsushiro Yu.Tanaka
    • Citrus × yuge-hyokan Yu.Tanaka

The bitter orange, sour orange, Seville orange, bigarade orange, or marmalade orange is the hybrid citrus tree species Citrus × aurantium, and its fruit. It is native to Southeast Asia and has been spread by humans to many parts of the world. It is a cross between the pomelo, Citrus maxima, and the wild type mandarin orange, Citrus reticulata. The bitter orange is used to make essential oil, used in foods, drinks, and pharmaceuticals. The Seville orange is prized for making British orange marmalade.

Definition

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In some proposed systems, the species Citrus × aurantium includes not only the bitter orange proper, but all other hybrids between the pomelo and the wild type mandarin, namely the sweet orange, the grapefruit, and all cultivated mandarins.[3][4][5] This article only deals with the bitter orange proper.

History

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See also: Citrus taxonomy

The bitter orange, like many cultivated Citrus species, is a hybrid, in its case of the wild mandarin and pomelo.[6][7]

The bitter orange, like many cultivated Citrus species, is a hybrid, in its case of the wild mandarin and pomelo.[7]

The bitter orange spread from Southeast Asia via India and Iran to the Islamic world as early as 700 AD in the Arab Agricultural Revolution.[8][9] After the Columbian exchange, the pomelo was introduced to the New World, starting in Mexico by 1568.[10]

Botany

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Description

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Foliage, blossoms and fruit. Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen, 1897

The bitter orange has orange fruit with a distinctly bitter or sour taste. The tree has alternate simple leaves on long petioles; there are long thorns on the petiole. The trees require little care and may live for as long as 600 years. It grows in subtropical regions but can tolerate a brief frost.[10]

Pests and diseases

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The bitter orange has many of the same pests and diseases as other citrus fruits. Viral diseases include citrus tristeza virus, crinkly leaf virus, and xyloporosis. Among the many fungal diseases are anthracnose, dieback, and heart rot.[10]

Varieties

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See also: Citrus taxonomy § Oranges

Among the many related species is Citrus bergamia, the Bergamot orange. This is probably a bitter orange and limetta hybrid; it is cultivated in Italy for the production of bergamot oil, a component of many brands of perfume and tea, especially Earl Grey tea.[13] It is a less hardy plant than other bitter orange varieties.[10]

Uses

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Culinary

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While the raw pulp is not edible,[14] bitter orange is widely used in cooking. The Seville orange (the usual name in this context) is prized for making British orange marmalade, being higher in pectin than the sweet orange, and therefore giving a better set and a higher yield. Once a year, oranges of this variety are collected from trees in Seville and shipped to Britain to be used in marmalade. However, the fruit is rarely consumed locally in Andalusia.[15] This reflects the historic Atlantic trading relationship with Portugal and Spain; an early recipe for 'marmelet of oranges' was recorded by Eliza Cholmondeley in 1677.[16] Bitter orange—bigarade—was used in all early recipes for duck à l'orange, originally called canard à la bigarade.[17] In Malta too, bitter oranges are used for marmalade.[18][19]

In Finland, mämmi is a fermented malted rye dough flavoured with ground Seville orange zest.[20] Across Scandinavia, bitter orange peel is used in dried, ground form in baked goods such as Christmas bread[21] and gingerbread.[22] In Greece, the nerántzi is one of the most prized fruits used for spoon sweets.[23] In Adana province, Turkey, bitter orange jam is a principal dessert.[24] Bitter oranges are made into chutneys in India, either in the style of a raita with curds, or roasted, spiced, and sweetened to form a condiment that can be preserved in jars.[25] In Yucatán (Mexico), it is a main ingredient of the cochinita pibil.[26] In Suriname, its juice is used in the well-known dish pom.[27]

An essential oil is extracted from the peel of dried unripe bitter oranges; C. aurantium var. curassaviensis in particular is used in Curaçao liqueur.[10] An oil is pressed from the fresh peel of ripe fruit in many countries and used in ice creams, puddings, sweets, soft and alcoholic drinks, and pharmaceuticals.[10] The flowers are distilled to yield Neroli oil[10] and orange flower water,[28] with similar uses.[10] Neroli oil is also employed in perfumes.[29] The peel of bitter oranges is used as a spice in Belgian Witbier (white beer), for orange-flavored liqueurs such as Cointreau, and to produce bitters such as Oranjebitter.[30] It is a component of Nordic hot spiced wine, glögg.[31]

  • English marmalade is traditionally homemade in the winter
    English marmalade is traditionally homemade in the winter
  • "Bitter Campari" poster, Leonetto Cappiello, c. 1921
    "Bitter Campari" poster, Leonetto Cappiello, c. 1921
  • 1965 Albanian postage stamp
    1965 Albanian postage stamp
  • Narthangai juice, India
    Narthangai juice, India
  • Homemade pepparkakor gingerbread, Sweden
    Homemade pepparkakor gingerbread, Sweden

Rootstock, wood, and soap

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The bitter orange is used as a rootstock in groves of sweet orange.[10] The fruit and leaves make lather and can be used as soap.[10] The hard, white or light-yellow wood is used in woodworking and made into baseball bats in Cuba.[10]

Herbal stimulant

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Extracts of bitter orange and its peel have been marketed as dietary supplements purported to act as a weight-loss aid and appetite suppressant.[32][33] Bitter orange contains the tyramine metabolites N-methyltyramine, octopamine, and synephrine,[34] substances similar to epinephrine, which act on the α1 adrenergic receptor to constrict blood vessels and increase blood pressure and heart rate.[35][36]

Following bans on the herbal stimulant ephedra in the U.S., Canada, and elsewhere, bitter orange has been substituted into "ephedra-free" herbal weight-loss products by dietary supplement manufacturers.[37] Bitter orange is believed to cause the same spectrum of adverse events as ephedra.[38] Case reports have linked bitter orange supplements to strokes,[39][40] angina,[34] ischemic colitis,[41] and myocardial infarction.[42] The U.S. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health found "little evidence that bitter orange is safer to use than ephedra."[33]

Drug interactions

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See also: Grapefruit–drug interactions

Bitter orange may have serious grapefruit-like drug interactions with medicines such as statins (to lower cholesterol), nifedipines (to lower blood pressure), some anti-anxiety drugs, and some antihistamines.[43]

References

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  1. ^ "Citrus × aurantium". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2010-01-05.
  2. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 29 September 2015.
  3. ^ Talon, M.; Caruso, M.; Gmitter, F.G. (2020). The Genus Citrus. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-812217-4. p. 69–70
  4. ^ Mabberley, David J. (6 September 2022). "A classification for edible citrus: an update, with a note on Murraya (Rutaceae)". Journal of Plant Systematics. 25: 271–284.
  5. ^ "Citrus × aurantium L." Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
  6. ^ Klein, Joshua D. (2014). "Citron Cultivation, Production and Uses in the Mediterranean Region". Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the World. Vol. 2. pp. 199–214. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9276-9_10. ISBN 978-94-017-9275-2.
  7. ^ a b Wu, Guohong Albert; Terol, Javier; Ibanez, Victoria; López-García, Antonio; Pérez-Román, Estela; et al. (2018). "Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus". Nature. 554 (7692): 311–316. Bibcode:2018Natur.554..311W. doi:10.1038/nature25447. hdl:20.500.11939/5741. PMID 29414943. and Supplement
  8. ^ Watson, Andrew (2008) [1983]. Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: the diffusion of crops and farming techniques 700-1100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-521-06883-3.
  9. ^ Trillo San Jose, Carmen (2004). Agua y Paisaje en Granada: Una Herencia de Al-Andalus. Granada, Spain: DIP. PROV. de Granada. ISBN 978-8478073528.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Sour Orange: Citrus aurantium". Purdue University. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
  11. ^ Grace, Roger M. (2006). "Cadbury Schweppes Reigns Supreme Over Orange Soda Market". metnews.com.
  12. ^ "Curacao". Food.com. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
  13. ^ "Citrus bergamia". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
  14. ^ Little, Elbert L. (1994) [1980]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region (Chanticleer Press ed.). Knopf. p. 510. ISBN 0394507614.
  15. ^ Ortega, Cristina (22 January 2007). "Apenas se aprovechará la naranja que se recoja en la capital este año". 20minutos Sevilla. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  16. ^ "20 fascinating facts about marmalade". Country Life. 27 February 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  17. ^ Ude, Louis Eustache (1819). The French Cook (6th ed.). 27 Old Bond-Street, London: John Ebers. p. 212.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  18. ^ MCA (2021-04-19). "Orange Marmalade". MCA Malta. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  19. ^ "Ċitru f'Malta". Dilettanti tal-Agrikoltura Siġar u Pjanti. 2021-05-03. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  20. ^ "Mämmi". Nordic Recipe Archive. Archived from the original on 2022-12-21.
  21. ^ "Pomeransbröd". Köket.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  22. ^ "Skurna pepparkakor med mandel och pomerans". Dagens Nyheter (in Swedish). 28 November 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  23. ^ Gogos, Dora Kitinas (4 July 2012). "Glyko tou koutaliou (spoon sweets)". Neos Kosmos. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  24. ^ Guzeler, Nuray; Yildirim, Cagla; Aridici, Ayse (2016). "The Culinary Culture and Traditional Foods of Adana Province". Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Uludag University. 30 (Special Issue): 538–545.
  25. ^ Mandanna, Sharada. "Bitter Orange Chutney". Coorg Tourism Info. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  26. ^ Kennedy, Diana; Presilla, Maricel E.; Rao, Tejal. "Cochinita Pibil". New York Times Cooking. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  27. ^ Vaneker, Karin (1 November 2012). "Discovering Pom's Potential". Reimagining Marginalized Foods. University of Arizona Press. pp. 88–108. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1814g4b.8. ISBN 978-0-8165-0236-3. JSTOR j.ctt1814g4b.8.
  28. ^ Duffy, Nikki (9 July 2005). "Super Ingredients: Orange Flower Water". The Guardian.
  29. ^ Arctander, Steffen (1960). Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin. p. 436. ISBN 195168205X.
  30. ^ "Bitter Orange or Seville Orange". Botanic Guardians. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  31. ^ "Swedish Christmas Glögg". BBC Food. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  32. ^ Sharpe, Patricia A.; Granner, Michelle L.; Conway, Joan M.; Ainsworth, Barbara E.; Dobre, Mirela (December 2006). "Availability of weight-loss supplements: Results of an audit of retail outlets in a southeastern city". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 106 (12): 2045–51. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.09.014. PMID 17126636.
  33. ^ a b "Bitter Orange". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. April 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  34. ^ a b Gange, Christopher A.; Madias, Christopher; Felix-Getzik, Erika M.; Weintraub, Andrew R.; Estes, N.A. Mark (April 2006). "Variant angina associated with bitter orange in a dietary supplement". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 81 (4): 545–8. doi:10.4065/81.4.545. PMID 16610576.
  35. ^ Bui, Linda T.; Nguyen, DiemThuy T.; Ambrose, Peter J. (January 2006). "Blood pressure and heart rate effects following a single dose of bitter orange". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 40 (1): 53–7. doi:10.1345/aph.1G488. PMID 16317106. S2CID 19625077.
  36. ^ Hess, A.M.; Sullivan, D.L. (March 2005). "Potential for toxicity with use of bitter orange extract and guarana for weight loss". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 39 (3): 574–5. doi:10.1345/aph.1E249. PMID 15657116. S2CID 28294405.
  37. ^ Duenwald, Mary (2005-10-11). "Bitter Orange Under Scrutiny as New Ephedra". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  38. ^ Jordan, Scott; Murty, Mano; Pilon, Karen (October 2004). "Products containing bitter orange or synephrine: suspected cardiovascular adverse reactions". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 171 (8): 993–994. PMID 15497209.
  39. ^ Bouchard, Nicole C.; Howland, Mary Ann; Greller, Howard A.; Hoffman, Robert S.; Nelson, Lewis S. (April 2005). "Ischemic stroke associated with use of an ephedra-free dietary supplement containing synephrine". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 80 (4): 541–5. doi:10.4065/80.4.541. PMID 15819293.
  40. ^ Holmes, R.O.; Tavee, J. (July 2008). "Vasospasm and stroke attributable to ephedra-free xenadrine: case report". Military Medicine. 173 (7): 708–10. doi:10.7205/milmed.173.7.708. PMID 18700609.
  41. ^ Sultan, Shahnaz; Spector, Jeremy; Mitchell, Robert M. (December 2006). "Ischemic colitis associated with use of a bitter orange-containing dietary weight-loss supplement". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 81 (12): 1630–1. doi:10.4065/81.12.1630. PMID 17165643.
  42. ^ Thomas, John E.; Munir, Jamalah A.; McIntyre, Peter Z.; Ferguson, Michael A. (2009). "STEMI in a 24-Year-Old Man after Use of a Synephrine-Containing Dietary Supplement: A Case Report and Review of the Literature". Tex. Heart Inst. J. 36 (6): 586–590. PMC 2801940. PMID 20069086.
  43. ^ "Grapefruit Juice and Some Drugs Don't Mix". FDA. 14 July 2021.
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