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Columbia River

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Template:Geobox River The Columbia River is a river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. It is named after the Columbia Rediviva, the first ship from the western world known to have traveled up the river.[1] It stretches from the Canadian province of British Columbia, through the U.S. state of Washington; forming much of the border between Washington and Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The river is 1,243 miles (2,000 km) long, and its drainage basin is 258,000 square miles (668,217 km²).

The Columbia is the largest river (measured by volume) flowing into the Pacific from the Western Hemisphere, and is the fourth-largest river in North America. The river's heavy flow, and its large elevation drop over a relatively short distance, give it tremendous potential for the generation of electricity. It is the largest hydroelectric power producing river in North America, with 14 hydroelectric dams in the United States and Canada.

The Columbia and its tributaries are home to numerous anadromous fish, which migrate between small, fresh water tributaries of the river and the Pacific Ocean. These fish - especially the various species of salmon - have been a vital part of the river's ecology and the local economy for thousands of years.

The taming of the river for human use, and the industrial waste that resulted in some cases, have come into conflict with ecological conservation numerous times since Americans and Europeans began to settle the area in the 18th century. This "harnessing," as it was commonly described in the popular culture of the early 20th century, included dredging for navigation by larger ships, nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research and production, and the construction of dams for power generation, irrigation, navigation, and flood control.

Drainage basin

With an average annual flow of about 265,000 ft³/s (7,500 m³/s), the Columbia is the largest river by volume flowing into the Pacific from the Western Hemisphere, and is the fourth-largest in North America, behind the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, and Mackenzie Rivers.[2] The Columbia's highest recorded flow was 1,240,000 ft³/s (35,113 m³/s), in June 1984.[3] The river flows 1,243 miles (2,000 km) from its headwaters to the Pacific, of which 745 miles (1,199 km) are in the U.S., draining an area of about 260,000 square miles (673,400 km²),[4] of which about 85% is in the U.S.[citation needed] The river's drainage basin covers nearly all of Idaho, large portions of British Columbia, Oregon, and Washington, and small portions of several neighboring states.

Columbia Lake—elevation 2,650 ft (808 m)—forms the Columbia’s headwaters in the Canadian Rockies of southern British Columbia. (The province derives its name, indirectly, from the river.) For its first 200 miles (320 km) the Columbia flows northwest, through Windermere Lake and the town of Invermere, then northwest to Golden and into Kinbasket Lake. The river then turns sharply south (at the “Big Bend”), passing through Revelstoke Lake and the Arrow Lakes to the BC–Washington border. The Pend Oreille River joins the Columbia in British Columbia, just north of the border.[4] The river marks the southern and eastern borders of the Colville Reservation, and the western border of the Spokane Reservation.[5]

The Columbia then winds through the channeled scablands of eastern Washington flowing southwest, then turns south and then southeasterly near the confluence of the Wenatchee River in central Washington. This C-shaped segment of the river is also known as the "Big Bend;" during the Missoula Floods (10,000 to 15,000 years ago), much water took a more direct route south, through the Grand Coulee, which after the floods was dry until the construction of the Grand Coulee Dam in the mid-20th century.[citation needed]

The river flows past The Gorge Amphitheatre—a prominent concert venue in the Northwest—and then past the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. The Snake River joins the Columbia in the Tri-Cities area. Hanford Reach, a section of the Columbia between Priest Rapids Dam and the Tri-Cities, is the only American stretch of the river that is free-flowing, unimpeded by dams, and not a tidal estuary. The Columbia makes a sharp bend to the west at the Washington-Oregon border. The river defines that border for the final 300 miles (480 km) of its journey.[citation needed]

Columbia River Gorge from Dog Mountain, Washington

The river is one of only three that pass through the Cascade Mountains (the other two being the Klamath River and the Pit River), which it does between The Dalles, Oregon and Portland, forming the Columbia River Gorge. The gorge is known for strong and steady winds, scenic beauty, and as an important transportation link.[6]

The river continues west, bending sharply to the north-northwest between Portland, Oregon and Vancouver, Washington, at the river's confluence with the Willamette River. Here the river slows considerably, dropping sediment that might otherwise form a river delta. The Columbia empties into the Pacific Ocean just past Astoria, Oregon over the Columbia Bar, a shifting sandbar which makes the river's mouth one of the most hazardous stretches of water to navigate in the world.[7]

Geology

Drumheller Channels, part of the channeled scablands formed by the Missoula Floods
See also: Missoula Floods

Volcanic activity in the region has been traced to 40 million years ago, in the Eocene era, forming much of the landscape traversed by the Columbia. In the Pleistocene era (the last ice age, two million to 700,000 years ago), the river broke through Cascade Range, forming the Columbia River Gorge.[8]

The river and its drainage basin experienced some of the world’s greatest known floods toward the end of the last ice age. The periodic rupturing of ice dams at Glacial Lake Missoula resulted in discharge rates ten times the combined flow of all the rivers of the world, as many as forty times over a thousand-year period.[9]

Water levels during the Missoula Floods have been estimated at 1,250 feet (381 m) at the Wallula Gap, 830 feet (253 m) at Bonneville Dam, and 400 feet (122 m) over current day Portland, Oregon.[10] The floods' periodic inundation of the lower Columbia River Plateau deposited rich lake sediments, establishing the fertility that supports extensive agriculture in the modern era. They also formed many unusual geological features, such as the channeled scablands of eastern Washington.

Indigenous peoples

Humans have inhabited the Columbia River Basin for as long as 10,000 years. In the 1990s, remains of a man (dubbed Kennewick Man) were found near Kennewick, Washington, and were determined to date from the 8th millennium BC. This discovery rekindled debate in the scientific community over the origins of human habitation in North America, and also sparked a protracted controversy over whether the scientific or Native American community was entitled to possess and/or study the remains.[11]

Celilo Falls was an important economic and cultural hub for as many as 10,000 years; traders convened from all over western North America to trade, drawn largely by the abundant salmon. The installation of The Dalles Dam in the mid-20th century displaced a thriving community of Native Americans; the Army Corps of Engineers' predictions of vibrant industry and plentiful work along the river did not come to pass.[12][13]

Several Indian tribes have a historical and continuing presence on the Columbia. The Sinixt or Lakes people live on the Canadian portion; the Colville, Spokane, Yakama, Nez Perce, Umatilla, Warm Springs tribes live along the U.S. stretch. Along the upper Snake River and Salmon River, the Shoshone Bannock Tribes are present. Near the lower Columbia River, the Cowlitz and Chinook tribes, which are not federally recognized, are present. The Yakama, Nez Perce, Umatilla, and Warm Springs tribes all have treaty fishing rights along the Columbia and its tributaries.They fished for money and if you caught a salmon it could sell for over $60

Modern history

Cascade on the Columbia River

In 1775, Bruno de Heceta became the first European to sight the mouth of the Columbia River, naming it either Bahía de la Asunción, or the San Rogue River. On May 11 1792, the American captain Robert Gray managed to sail into the Columbia River, becoming the first explorer to enter it. Gray had traveled to the Pacific Northwest to trade for furs in a privately owned vessel named Columbia Rediviva; he named the river after the ship. Gray spent nine days trading near the mouth of the Columbia, then left without having gone beyond 13 miles (21 km) upstream. George Vancouver, commander of the British naval expedition that was exploring the region at the same time, soon learned that Gray claimed to have found a navigable river, and went to investigate for himself. In October 1792, Vancouver sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton, his second-in-command, up the river. Broughton sailed up for some miles, then continued in small boats. He got as far as the Columbia River Gorge, about 100 miles (160 km) upstream, sighting and naming Mount Hood. He also formally claimed the river, its watershed and the nearby coast for Britain. Gray's discovery of the Columbia was used by the United States to support their claim to the Oregon Country, which was also claimed by Russia, Great Britain, Spain and other nations.[14]

French explorers called the Columbia River Ouragan (translation: "hurricane"), which is one of several plausible origins of the name "Oregon".

Columbia River, Cascade Mountains, Oregon (1876) by Vincent Colyer (oil on canvas)

American explorers Lewis and Clark, who charted the vast, unmapped lands west of the Missouri River, traveled down the Columbia, on the last stretch of their 1805 expedition. They explored as far upstream as Bateman Island, near present-day Tri-Cities, Washington. Their journey concluded at the river's mouth.

Canadian explorer David Thompson, of the North West Company, spent the winter of 1807–08 at Kootenae House near the source of the Columbia at present day Invermere, British Columbia. In 1811 he traveled down the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, becoming the first European-American to travel the entire length of the river.

In 1825, on behalf of the Hudson's Bay Company, Dr. John McLoughlin established Fort Vancouver (currently Vancouver, Washington) on the banks of the Columbia as a fur trading headquarters in the region. The fort was by far the largest European settlement in the northwest of the time. Every year ships would come from London (via the Pacific) to drop off supplies and trade goods in exchange for the furs. For many settlers the fort became the last stop on the Oregon Trail to buy supplies and land before starting their homestead. Because of its access to the Columbia river, Fort Vancouver’s influence reached from Alaska to California and from the Rocky Mountains to the Hawaiian Islands.

By the turn of the 20th century, the difficulty of navigating the Columbia was seen as an impediment to the economic development of the Inland Empire region east of the Cascades.[15] The dredging and dam building that followed would permanently alter the river, disrupting its natural flow but also providing electricity, irrigation, navigability and other benefits to the region.

The mouth of the Columbia is just past Astoria, Oregon; ships must navigate the treacherous Columbia Bar (near horizon, not visible in this picture) to enter or exit the river.
The Essayons, an Army Corps of Engineers dredge currently in use on the Columbia[16]

The development of the Columbia as a shipping channel has involved the construction of jetties at the river's mouth, dredging, and the construction of navigation locks. The Columbia Bar, a shifting sandbar at the mouth of the river, makes passage between the river and the Pacific Ocean difficult and dangerous. It prevented European explorers from entering the river until Captain Gray's 1792 voyage, and remains an obstacle to the present day. Jetties extend the river's channel into the ocean, but strong currents and the shifting sandbar beneath the surface remains a threat to ships entering the river. Today, ocean freighters can travel upriver as far as Portland and Vancouver, and barges can reach as far inland as Lewiston, Idaho and eastern Washington.[17]

Navigation locks were first constructed in 1896 around the Cascade Rapids,[18] enabling boats to travel safely through the Columbia River Gorge.[19]

In 1891 the Columbia was dredged to enhance shipping; the channel between the ocean and Portland/Vancouver was deepened from 17 feet (5.2 m) to 25 feet (7.6 m.) The Columbian newspaper called for the channel to be deepened to 40 feet (12.2 m) as early as 1905, but that depth was not attained until 1976.[20]

The Dalles-Celilo Canal, bypassing Celilo Falls, opened to river traffic in 1915.[21]

In 1999, Congress authorized dredging the lower Columbia, to deepen the channel between Portland and Astoria from 40 to 43 feet (31.1 m.) A depth of 43 feet (13 m) will make it possible for large container and grain ships to reach Portland and Vancouver.[22]

The project, however, has met opposition, due to concerns about stirring up toxic sediment on the riverbed. Portland-based Northwest Environmental Advocates brought a lawsuit against the Army Corps of Engineers, but it was rejected by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in August, 2006.[23]

The project includes measures to mitigate environmental damage; for instance, for every acre (4,000 m²) of wetland damaged by the project, the Corps must restore 12 acres (49,000 m²) of wetland.[22] In early 2006, the Corps spilled 50 gallons (189 L) of hydraulic oil into the Columbia, drawing further criticism from environmental organizations.[24]

Studies for the project were conducted as early as 1990, and were controversial from the start.[25] After approval in 1999, work began in 2005, and is expected to conclude in 2010. The project's cost is estimated at $150 million. The federal government is paying 65%, Oregon and Washington are paying $27 million each, and six local ports make payments as well.[22][26]

Damns: "harnessing" the river

See also: Hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River, Columbia River Treaty, and Columbia Basin Project

This river may have been shaped by God, or glaciers, or the remnants of the inland sea, or gravity or a combination of all, but the Army Corps of Engineers controls it now. The Columbia rises and falls, not by the dictates of tide or rainfall, but by a computer-activated, legally-arbitrated, federally-allocated schedule that changes only when significant litigation is concluded, or a United States Senator nears election time. In that sense, it is reliable.

Timothy Egan, in The Good Rain[27]

File:JhnDyDam2.jpg
Fish ladder at John Day Dam

The Columbia's heavy flow and extreme elevation drop over a short distance give it tremendous capacity for hydroelectricity generation. It was estimated in the 1960s – ’70s that the Columbia represented a fifth of the total hydroelectric capacity on Earth (although these estimates may no longer be accurate.)[citation needed] The Columbia drops Template:River drop, as compared with the Mississippi which drops less than Template:River drop.[citation needed]

Today, the mainstream of the Columbia River has 14 dams (three in Canada, 11 in the United States.) Four mainstem dams and four lower Snake River dams have locks to allow ship and barge passage. Numerous Columbia River tributaries have dams for hydroelectric and/or irrigation purposes. While hydroelectricity accounts for only 6.5% of energy in the United States, the Columbia and its tributaries provide approximately 60% of the hydroelectric power on the west coast.[28] The largest of the 150 hydroelectric projects, the Grand Coulee Dam and the Chief Joseph Dam, are also the largest in the United States;[29][30] and among the largest in the world.[31]

Inexpensive hydro-power supported the emergence of an extensive aluminum industry, which draws tremendous amounts of power. Until 2000, the Northwestern United States produced up to 40% of the aluminum produced in the U.S., and 17% of the world's aluminum.[32] But the commoditization of power in the early 2000s, coupled with drought that reduced the generation capacity of the river, damaged the industry; by 2003, the U.S. produced only 15% of the world's aluminum, many smelters among the Columbia having gone dormant or having gone out of business.[33][34]

Power remains relatively inexpensive along the Columbia, and in recent years, high-tech companies like Google have begun to move server farm operations into the area to avail themselves of cheap power.[35]

In addition to generating power, the dams extend the length of the river available for navigation by ships into eastern Washington, and provide irrigation. The Grand Coulee Dam, constructed starting in 1933, has provided water for the Columbia Basin Project, one of the most extensive irrigation projects in the western United States, since 1951.[36] The project provides water to over 500,000 acres (2,000 km²) of fertile but arid lands in central Washington State. Water from the project has transformed the region from a wasteland barely able to produce subsistence levels of dry-land wheat crops to a major agricultural center. Important crops include apples, potatoes, alfalfa, wheat, corn (maize), barley, hops, beans, and sugar beets.

The United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBoR) was established in 1902, to facilitate the development of agriculture in dry western states.[37] The United States dams are presently owned by the Federal Government (some by the Army Corps of Engineers, some by the USBoR), Public utility districts, and private power companies.

The installation of dams dramatically altered the landscape and ecosystem of the river. At one time the Columbia was one of the top salmon-producing river systems in the world.[38] Previously active fishing sites, most notably Celilo Falls in the eastern Columbia River Gorge, have exhibited a sharp decline in fishing along the Columbia in the last century. The presence of dams, coupled with over-fishing, has played a major role in the reduction of salmon populations. Fish ladders have been installed at some dam sites to help the fish journey to spawning waters. Grand Coulee Dam has no fish ladders and completely blocks fish migration to the upper half of the Columbia River system.

Roll on, Columbia, roll on, roll on, Columbia, roll on
Your power is turning our darkness to dawn
Roll on, Columbia, roll on.

Roll on Columbia by Woody Guthrie, written under commission of the Bonneville Power Administration

Downriver of Grand Coulee, each dam’s reservoir is closely regulated by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), Army Corps of Engineers, and various Washington Public Utility Districts to ensure flow, flood control, and power generation objectives are met. Increasingly, hydro-power operations are required to meet standards under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and other agreements to manage operations to minimize impacts on salmon and other fish, and some conservation and fishing groups support removing four dams on the lower Snake River, the largest tributary of the Columbia.[citation needed]

In 1941, the BPA hired Oklahoma folksinger Woody Guthrie to write songs for a documentary film promoting the benefits of hydropower. In the month he spent traveling the region Guthrie wrote 26 songs, which have become an important part of the cultural history of the region.[39][40]

Ecology and environment

In their natural life cycle, salmon die shortly after spawning. Eagle Creek in Oregon, November 2007.

The Columbia supports several species of anadromous fish, which migrate between the Pacific Ocean and fresh water tributaries of the river. Coho and Chinook salmon and Steelhead are ocean fish which migrate up the rivers at the end of their life cycles to spawn; White sturgeon, which take 25 years to grow to full size, would typically migrate between the ocean and the upstream habitat several times over the course of their lives.

Logging and the installation of dams have had a negative impact on these fish. Timber harvesting contaminates river water; the Northwest Forest Plan, a piece of federal legislation from 1994, mandated that timber companies consider the environmental impacts of their practices on rivers like the Columbia.[41]

Dams interrupt the migration of anadromous fish. Salmon and steelhead return to the stream in which they were born to spawn; where dams prevent their return, entire populations of salmon die off. Some of the Columbia's dams employ fish ladders, which are effective to varying degrees at allowing these fish to travel upstream; others, like the Grand Coulee Dam and several on the Columbia's tributaries, entirely block migration. Fish are also transported around dams in some cases. Sturgeon have different migration habits, and can survive without ever visiting the ocean. In many upstream areas cut off from the ocean by dams, sturgeon simply live upstream of the dam.

The Columbia near The Dalles, Oregon

The Grand Coulee Dam, originally intended primarily for irrigation, was ultimately designed to produce enormous quantities of hydroelectric power, as World War II escalated. The power was used to fuel the Hanford Site, constructed in the 1940s in southeastern Washington. Part of the Manhattan Project, the site served as a plutonium production complex with nine nuclear reactors and related facilities. Most of the facilities were shut down in the 1960s. The site is currently under control of the Department of Energy, and is a Superfund site. The Superfund cleanup is expected to be completed in 2030.[citation needed]

Studies by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and state monitoring programs have found that nuclear waste contaminated the Columbia's water, posing a potential threat to downstream communities that use the river's water for drinking water.[42][43]

In addition to concerns about nuclear waste, numerous other pollutants are found in the river. These include pesticides, bacteria, arsenic, dioxins, and Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB.)[44]

Studies have also found significant levels of toxins in fish and the waters they inhabit within the basin. Accumulation of toxins in fish threatens the survival of fish species, and human consumption of these fish can lead to health problems. Many governments, communities and citizens have rallied to launch a long term and intense recovery effort to restore these remarkable fish.[citation needed]

Water quality is also an important factor in the survival of other wildlife and plants that grow in the Columbia River Basin. The states, Indian tribes, and federal government are all engaged in efforts to restore and improve the water, land, and air quality of the Columbia River Basin and have committed to work together to enhance and accomplish critical ecosystem restoration efforts. A number of important work efforts are currently underway, including Portland Harbor in the Lower Basin, Hanford in the Middle Basin and Lake Roosevelt in the Upper Basin.[45]

Environmental advocates have called for the removal of certain dams in the Columbia River system for many years. Of the 227 major dams in the Columbia River Basin, four dams on the Snake River are most often identified for removal. These dams and reservoirs currently limit the recovery of upriver salmon runs to Idaho's Salmon and Clearwater rivers,[46]Historically, the Snake produced over 1.5 million spring and summer Chinook Salmon, a number that has dwindled to several thousand in recent years.[47] Idaho Power Company's Hells Canyon dams have no fish ladders (and do not pass juvenile salmon downstream), and thus allow no steelhead or salmon to migrate above Hells Canyon. In 2007, the destruction of the Marmot Dam on the Sandy River marked the first of several dams to be removed in the system.[48]

On July 1 2003, Christopher Swain of Portland, Oregon became the first person to swim the Columbia River's entire length, in an effort to raise public awareness about the river's pollution.[2][44][49]

Major tributaries

Template:ImageStackRight

Main article: Tributaries of the Columbia River
Columbia River watershed, showing major dams and tributaries
Tributary Average
discharge:
ft³/s (m³/s)
Snake River 56,900 (1611)
Willamette River 35,660 (1010)
Kootenay River (Kootenai) 30,650 (867)
Pend Oreille River 27,820 (788)
Cowlitz River 9,200 (261)
Spokane River 6,700 (190)
Deschutes River 6,000 (170)
Lewis River 4,800 (136)
Yakima River 3,540 (100)
Wenatchee River 3,220 (91)
Okanogan River 3,050 (86)
Kettle River 2,930 (83)
Sandy River 2,260 (64)

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Columbia River.

References

  1. ^ Loy, William G. (2001). Atlas of Oregon. University of Oregon Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-87114-102-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b Wentz, Patty (May 29, 2002). "Swimming to astoria". Willamette Week. Retrieved 2007-11-22. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ Northwest Council
  4. ^ a b "Columbia (river, North America)," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. Accessed 2007-11-25.
  5. ^ "Health consultation". Colville Federated Tribes. United States Department of Health and Human Services. 2001-03-07. Retrieved 2007-11-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area". USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  7. ^ Jacklet, Ben (October 192004). "Columbia pilot pay attracts port's eye". Portland Tribune. Retrieved 2007-06-14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ "The Geologic History of the Columbia River Gorge". USGS.
  9. ^ "Glacial Lake Missoula and the Missoula Floods". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2006-11-19.
  10. ^ Houck, Michael C. (2000). Wild in the City. Oregon Historical Society. ISBN 0-87595-273-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Lemonick, Michael D. (March 132006). "Who Were The First Americans?". Time. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Mortenson, Eric (March 42007). "Still waters, stolen lives". The Oregonian. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Frazier, Joseph B. (March 42007). "Half a Century Later, Dam's Closing Is a Painful Memory". Associated Press. The Washington Post. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Jacobs, Melvin C. (1938). Winning Oregon: A Study of An Expansionist Movement. The Caxton Printers, Ltd. 77.
  15. ^ Reeder, Lee B. (1902). "Open the Columbia to the sea". Pendleton Daily Tribune. E. P. Dodd. Retrieved 2007-05-13.
  16. ^ Hopper Dredges, from globalsecurity.org
  17. ^ Center for Columbia River History web site
  18. ^ The Oregonian, January 1, 1895, p. 8
  19. ^ Scott, Harvey W. (1924). History of the Oregon Country. Cambridge: Riverside Press. pp. Vol. 3, p. 190. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ "Rewind--Editorials from our archives: 1905: 40 ft (12 m). depth wanted". The Columbian. December 26, 2005.
  21. ^ "The Dalles-Celilo Canal on Columbia River opens to traffic on May 5, 1915". HistoryLink.org. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  22. ^ a b c Koenninger, Tom (March 72007). "Dredging Columbia a very big job". The Columbian. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ "In Our View - Monitor the Dredging". The Columbian. August 262006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Robinson, Erik (March 32006). "State rebukes Corps of Engineers over oil spill". The Columbian. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Paul Koberstein and Kathie Durbin (January 21, 1990). "Cleanup study already bogged in controversy". The Oregonian.
  26. ^ "Bush budget offers $15 million for dredging". The Columbian. February 82006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ Egan, Timothy (1990). The Good Rain. Knopf. ISBN 0394577248.
  28. ^ Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Federal Columbia River Power System, brochure (2003), p. 1.
  29. ^ "Renewable Energy Sources: A Consumer's Guide". U.S. Department of Energy: Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
  30. ^ Chief Joseph Dam, US Army Corps of Engineers
  31. ^ http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001336.html
  32. ^ Kinsey Hill, Gail (March 11, 2001). "Aluminum industry powering down". The Oregonian. Retrieved 2007-12-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ^ Fehrenbacher, Gretchen (February 23, 2003). "Aluminum all but gone". The Columbian.
  34. ^ McCall, William (November 22, 2002). "BPA chief to detail strategy for troubled power broker". The Columbian.
  35. ^ Mehta, Stephanie N. (August 72006). "Behold the server farm! Glorious temple of the information age!". Fortune. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ^ "Chapter 2". Lake Roosevelt, Administrative History. U.S. National Park Service: Department of the Interior. Retrieved 2006-11-20.
  37. ^ Bureau of Reclamation web site]. Accessed 2007-11-19.
  38. ^ Rosenberg, John (July 19, 2000). "Sacred and shared - clergy work to save Columbia River". Christian Century. Retrieved 2007-11-27.
  39. ^ Heinz, Spencer (July 82007). "Rolling along the Columbia, driving for Woody Guthrie". The Oregonian. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ Morrow, Lance (July 82002). "This Land Is Whose Land? Times and priorities change. Woody Guthrie hailed Lewis and Clark for finding a place to build dams. Today his tune might be different". Time. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ Pegg, J.R. (November 262002). "Bush Change to NW Forest Plan Would Ease Logging". Environment News Service. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ EPA report, Hanford 100-Area (USDOE), September 2007
  43. ^ Murphy, Kim (March 122000). "Radioactive Waste Seeps Toward The Greatest River Of The American West". The Los Angeles Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ^ a b Jacklet, Ben (July 242001). "Activist plans an epic swim". The Portland Tribune. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ^ EPA report on the Columbia. Columbia River Basin: A National Priority.
  46. ^ Monroe, Bill (September 112006). "Oregon's delicate balance". The Oregonian. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  47. ^ Milstein, Michael (April 102007). "Court finds feds no help to fish". The Oregonian. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  48. ^ "A river released to the wild". The Oregonian. July 292007. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  49. ^ Anderson, Jennifer (July 9 2004). "Challenge sets off global ripples". The Portland Tribune. Retrieved 2007-06-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Further reading

  • MacGibbon, Elma (1904). "Columbia River and Pullman". Leaves of knowledge (DJVU). Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection. Shaw & Borden.
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