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History of hypertension

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The modern history of hypertension begins with the understanding of the cardiovascular system based on the work of physician William Harvey (1578–1657), who described the circulation of blood in his book De motu cordis. The English clergyman Stephen Hales made the first published measurement of blood pressure in 1733.[1][2] Descriptions of what would come to be called hypertension came from, among others, Thomas Young in 1808 and especially Richard Bright in 1836.[1] Bright noted a link between cardiac hypertrophy and kidney disease, and subsequently kidney disease was often termed Bright's disease in this period. In 1850 George Johnson suggested that the thickened blood vessels seen in the kidney in Bright's disease might be an adaptation to elevated blood pressure.[3] William Senhouse Kirkes in 1855 and Ludwig Traube in 1856 also proposed, based on pathological observations, that elevated pressure could account for the association between left ventricular hypertrophy to kidney damage in Bright's disease.[4] Samuel Wilks observed that left ventricular hypertrophy and diseased arteries were not necessarily associated with diseased kidneys,[5] implying that high blood pressure might occur in people with healthy kidneys; however, the first report of elevated blood pressure in a person without evidence of kidney disease was made by Frederick Akbar Mahomed in 1874 using a sphygmograph.[6] The concept of hypertensive disease as a generalized circulatory disease was taken up by Sir Clifford Allbutt, who termed the condition "hyperpiesia".[7][8] However, hypertension as a medical entity really came into being in 1896 with the invention of the cuff-based sphygmomanometer by Scipione Riva-Rocci in 1896,[9] which allowed blood pressure to be measured in the clinic. In 1905, Nikolai Korotkoff improved the technique by describing the Korotkoff sounds that are heard when the artery is ausculted with a stethoscope while the sphygmomanometer cuff is deflated.[2] Tracking serial blood pressure measurements was further enhanced when Donal Nunn invented an accurate fully automated oscillometric sphygmomanometer device in 1981.[10]

The term essential hypertension ('Essentielle Hypertonie') was coined by Eberhard Frank in 1911 to describe elevated blood pressure for which no cause could be found.[11] In 1928, the term malignant hypertension was coined by physicians from the Mayo Clinic to describe a syndrome of very high blood pressure, severe retinopathy and inadequate kidney function which usually resulted in death within a year from strokes, heart failure or kidney failure.[12] A prominent individual with severe hypertension was Franklin D. Roosevelt.[13] However, while the menace of severe or malignant hypertension was well recognised, the risks of more moderate elevations of blood pressure were uncertain and the benefits of treatment doubtful. Consequently, hypertension was often classified into "malignant" and "benign". In 1931, John Hay, Professor of Medicine at Liverpool University, wrote that "there is some truth in the saying that the greatest danger to a man with a high blood pressure lies in its discovery, because then some fool is certain to try and reduce it".[14][15] This view was echoed in 1937 by US cardiologist Paul Dudley White, who suggested that "hypertension may be an important compensatory mechanism which should not be tampered with, even if we were certain that we could control it".[16] Charles Friedberg's 1949 classic textbook "Diseases of the Heart",[17] stated that "people with 'mild benign' hypertension ... [defined as blood pressures up to levels of 210/100 mm Hg] ... need not be treated".[15] However, the tide of medical opinion was turning: it was increasingly recognised in the 1950s that "benign" hypertension was not harmless.[18] Over the next decade increasing evidence accumulated from actuarial reports[2][19] and longitudinal studies, such as the Framingham Heart Study,[20] that "benign" hypertension increased death and cardiovascular disease, and that these risks increased in a graded manner with increasing blood pressure across the whole spectrum of population blood pressures. Subsequently, the National Institutes of Health also sponsored other population studies, which additionally showed that African Americans had a higher burden of hypertension and its complications.[21]

Treatment and medications

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Historically the treatment for what was called the "hard pulse disease" consisted in reducing the quantity of blood by blood letting or the application of leeches.[1] This was advocated by The Yellow Emperor of China, Cornelius Celsus, Galen, and Hippocrates.[1]

In the late 19th and early to mid 20th centuries, many therapies were used to treat hypertension,[22][23] but few were effective,[24][23] and these were poorly tolerated.[25][26] Therapies used in that period included strict sodium restriction (for example the rice diet[1]),[27] sympathectomy (surgical ablation of parts of the sympathetic nervous system),[27] and pyrogen therapy (injection of substances that caused a fever, indirectly reducing blood pressure).[1][21] The first chemical for hypertension, sodium thiocyanate, was used in 1900 but had many side effects[24] and was unpopular.[1] Other treatments, such as barbiturates, bismuth, and bromides were mainly supportive rather than therapeutic.[26] Other drugs were used after the Second World War, the most popular and reasonably effective of which were tetramethylammonium chloride and its derivative hexamethonium.[28] Also used in the post-war period were hydralazine[29] and reserpine (derived from the medicinal plant Rauvolfia serpentina).[30]

A major breakthrough was achieved in the 1950s with the discovery of well-tolerated oral diuretics, the first of which was chlorothiazide (Diuril).[31] This was derived from the antibiotic sulfanilamide and became available in 1958.[1][32] A randomized controlled trial sponsored by the Veterans Administration comparing hydrochlorothiazide plus reserpine plus hydralazine versus placebo had to be stopped early because those not receiving treatment developed many more complications and it was deemed unethical to withhold treatment from them. The study continued in people with lower blood pressures and showed that treatment even in people with mild hypertension more than halved the risk of cardiovascular death.[15][33] In 1975, the Lasker Special Public Health Award was awarded to the team that developed chlorothiazide.[21] The results of these studies prompted public health campaigns to increase public awareness of hypertension and promoted the measurement and treatment of high blood pressure. These measures appear to have contributed at least in part to the observed 50% fall in stroke and ischemic heart disease between 1972 and 1994.[21]

Soon more drugs became available to treat hypertension. The British physician James W. Black developed beta blockers in the early 1960s;[34] these were initially used for angina, but turned out to lower blood pressure. Black received the 1976 Lasker Award and in 1988 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.[21] The next class of antihypertensives to be discovered were calcium channel blockers. The first member was verapamil, a derivative of papaverine that was initially thought to be a beta blocker and used for angina, but then turned out to have a different mode of action and was shown to lower blood pressure.[21] The renin–angiotensin system was known to play an important role in blood pressure regulation, and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors were developed through rational drug design. In 1977 captopril, an orally active agent, was described;[35] this led to the development of a number of other ACE inhibitors.[21] More recently angiotensin receptor blockers and renin inhibitors have also been introduced as antihypertensive agents.[36][37]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Esunge PM (October 1991). "From blood pressure to hypertension: the history of research". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 84 (10): 621. doi:10.1177/014107689108401019. PMC 1295564. PMID 1744849.
  2. ^ a b c Kotchen TA (October 2011). "Historical trends and milestones in hypertension research: a model of the process of translational research". Hypertension. 58 (4): 522–38. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.177766. PMID 21859967.
  3. ^ Johnson G (1850). "On the proximate cause of albuminous urine and dropsy, and on the pathology of the renal blood-vessels in Bright's Disease". Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. 33: 107–20. doi:10.1177/095952875003300109. PMC 2104234. PMID 20895925.
  4. ^ Cameron JS, Hicks J (February 2000). "High blood pressure and the kidney: the forgotten contribution of William Senhouse Kirkes". Kidney International. 57 (2): 724–34. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2000.00895.x. PMID 10652052.
  5. ^ Cameron JS, Hicks J (May 1996). "Frederick Akbar Mahomed and his role in the description of hypertension at Guy's Hospital". Kidney International. 49 (5): 1488–506. doi:10.1038/ki.1996.209. PMID 8731118.
  6. ^ Swales JD, ed. (1995). Manual of hypertension. Oxford: Blackwell Science. pp. xiii. ISBN 978-0-86542-861-4.
  7. ^ Shaw HB (1922). Hyperpiesia and hyperpiesis (hypertension) : a clinical, pathological & experimental study. University of California Libraries. London : Frowde and Hodder & Stoughton.
  8. ^ Freis E (1995). "Historical Development of Antihypertensive Treatment". In Laragh J, Brenner B (eds.). Hypertension : pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management (2nd ed.). New York: Raven Press. pp. 2742. ISBN 9780781701570. OCLC 30894228.
  9. ^ Postel-Vinay N, ed. (1996). A century of arterial hypertension 1896–1996. Chichester: Wiley. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-471-96788-0.
  10. ^ Apparatus and method for measuring blood pressure[1]
  11. ^ Paul I. Korner Professor of Medicine Monash University (Emeritus) and Director of the (11 May 2007). Essential Hypertension and Its Causes : Neural and Non-Neural Mechanisms: Neural and Non-Neural Mechanisms. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 4–. ISBN 978-0-19-535740-0.
  12. ^ Keith NM, Wagener HP, Kernohan JW (1928). "The syndrome of malignant hypertension". Arch. Intern. Med. 41 (2): 141–188. doi:10.1001/archinte.1928.00130140003001.
  13. ^ Bruenn HG (April 1970). "Clinical notes on the illness and death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt". Annals of Internal Medicine. 72 (4): 579–91. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-72-4-579. PMID 4908628.
  14. ^ Hay J (July 1931). "A British Medical Association Lecture on THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A RAISED BLOOD PRESSURE". British Medical Journal. 2 (3679): 43–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.3679.43. PMC 2314188. PMID 20776269.
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  16. ^ White PD (1937). Heart Disease (2nd ed.). New York, NY: MacMillan Co. p. 326.
  17. ^ Friedberg CK (1949). Diseases of the Heart. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co.
  18. ^ Pickering GW (1952). "The natural history of hypertension". British Medical Bulletin. 8 (4): 305–9. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a074193. PMID 12987687.
  19. ^ Society of Actuaries Committee on Mortality (1960). Build and blood pressure study, 1959. Chicago, IL: Society of Actuaries.
  20. ^ "Section 30: Some characteristics related to the incidence of cardiovascular disease and death: 18 year follow-up". The Framingham Study; DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 74-599. Bethesda, MD: National Heart and Lung Institute. 1974.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Dustan HP, Roccella EJ, Garrison HH (September 1996). "Controlling hypertension. A research success story". Archives of Internal Medicine. 156 (17): 1926–35. doi:10.1001/archinte.156.17.1926. PMID 8823146.
  22. ^ Ayman D (1930-07-26). "An evaluation of therapeutic results in essential hypertension: i. the interpretation of symptomatic relief". Journal of the American Medical Association. 95 (4): 246–249. doi:10.1001/jama.1930.02720040004002.
  23. ^ a b Evans W, Loughnan O (July 1939). "The drug treatment of hyperpiesia". British Heart Journal. 1 (3): 199–228. doi:10.1136/hrt.1.3.199. PMC 503854. PMID 18609819.
  24. ^ a b Ayman D (1931-06-20). "An evaluation of therapeutic results in essential hypertension: II. the interpretation of blood pressure reductions". Journal of the American Medical Association. 96 (25): 2091–2094. doi:10.1001/jama.1931.02720510011003.
  25. ^ Ayman D (1931-05-30). "Potassium thiocyanate in the treatment of essential hypertension: its impracticability". Journal of the American Medical Association. 96 (22): 1852–1857. doi:10.1001/jama.1931.02720480010004.
  26. ^ a b Moser M (August 2006). "Historical perspectives on the management of hypertension". Journal of Clinical Hypertension. 8 (Suppl 2): 15–20, quiz 39. doi:10.1111/j.1524-6175.2006.05836.x. PMC 8109518. PMID 16894244. S2CID 13620345.
  27. ^ a b Laragh JH, Brenner BM (1995). Hypertension : pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management (2nd ed.). New York: Raven Press. ISBN 9780781701570. OCLC 30894228.
  28. ^ Wien R, Mason DF (December 1951). "Some actions of hexamethonium and certain homologues". British Journal of Pharmacology and Chemotherapy. 6 (4): 611–29. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1951.tb00672.x. PMC 1509152. PMID 14904886.
  29. ^ Johnson RP (October 1953). "The treatment of hypertension with 1-hydrazinophthalazine (apresoline)". American Heart Journal. 46 (4): 592–601. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(53)90069-6. PMID 13092045.
  30. ^ Vakil RJ (August 1955). "Rauwolfia serpentina in the treatment of high blood pressure; a review of the literature". Circulation. 12 (2): 220–9. doi:10.1161/01.cir.12.2.220. PMID 13240803.
  31. ^ Greene JA (2005). "Releasing the flood waters: diuril and the reshaping of hypertension". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 79 (4): 749–94. doi:10.1353/bhm.2005.0153. PMID 16327086. S2CID 41499410.
  32. ^ Novello FC, Sprague JM (1957). "Benzothiadiazine dioxides as novel diuretics". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 (8): 2028–2029. doi:10.1021/ja01565a079.
  33. ^ Freis ED (1974). "The Veterans Administration cooperative study on antihypertensive agents. Implications for stroke prevention". Stroke. 5 (1): 76–7. doi:10.1161/01.STR.5.1.76. PMID 4811316.
  34. ^ Black JW, Crowther AF, Shanks RG, Smith LH, Dornhorst AC (May 1964). "A new adrenergic betareceptor antagonist". Lancet. 1 (7342): 1080–1. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(64)91275-9. PMID 14132613.
  35. ^ Ondetti MA, Rubin B, Cushman DW (April 1977). "Design of specific inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme: new class of orally active antihypertensive agents". Science. 196 (4288): 441–4. Bibcode:1977Sci...196..441O. doi:10.1126/science.191908. PMID 191908.
  36. ^ Wexler RR, Greenlee WJ, Irvin JD, Goldberg MR, Prendergast K, Smith RD, Timmermans PB (February 1996). "Nonpeptide angiotensin II receptor antagonists: the next generation in antihypertensive therapy". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 39 (3): 625–56. doi:10.1021/jm9504722. PMID 8576904.
  37. ^ Jensen C, Herold P, Brunner HR (May 2008). "Aliskiren: the first renin inhibitor for clinical treatment". Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. 7 (5): 399–410. doi:10.1038/nrd2550. PMID 18340340. S2CID 19633316.
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