Gunung Api ring Indonésia
Geografi Indonésia kakasorang olih gunung api sané kawentuk olih zona subduksi pantaraning lempeng Eurasia miwah lempeng Indo-Australia. Makudang-kudang gunung berapi kasub krana letusannyané, minakadi Krakatau sané letusannyané mangaruhan global ring warsa 1883,[1] letusan supervulkan Gunung Toba sané katarka mamargi 74.000 warsa sané ngawinang kawéntenan musim dingin vulkanik salami nem warsa,[2] miwah Gunung Tambora antuk letusan pinih ageng sané naenin kacatet ring babad ring warsa 1815.[3] Gunung api ring Indonésia pinaka pahan saking Sabuk Alpida miwah Cincin Api Pasifik. 150 entri ring daftar ring sor puniki kaklompokang dados nem wewidangan geografis, papat saking punika madué gunung api ring sajeroning busur Sunda. Kalih wewidangan tiosan inggih punika gunung berapi ring Halmahera, rumasuk pulo-pulo vulkanik sané nampek irika, miwah gunung berapi ring Sulawesi miwah Kepulauan Sangihe. Wewidangan sané pinih untat magenah ring satunggal busur vulkanik sareng gunungapi ring Filipina.
Gunung api sané pinih aktif inggih punika Kelud miwah Merapi ring Pulo Jawa, sané ngawinang akéh séda ring wewidangan punika. Ngawit warsa 1000 Masehi, Kelud sampun makeplug ping 30, antuk letusan pinih ageng sané madaging kekuatan 5 VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index),[4] raris Merapi sampun makeplug ping 100.[ Asosiasi Internasional Vulkanologi miwah Kimia Interior Bumi, ngawastanin Merapi pinaka Gunung Api Dasawarsa puniki saking warsa 1995 santukan aktivitas vulkaniknyané sané tegeh pisan.
Ring warsa 2012, Indonésia madué 127 gunung berapi aktif sané akéh kramanyané kirang langkung 5 yuta diri. Ngawit 26 Désémber 2004, risampuné linuh ageng miwah tsunami, makasami pola letusan gunung berapi mauwah, minakadi Gunung Sinabung, sané pinih untat meletus duk warsa 1600-an, sakéwanten dumadak aktif malih ring warsa 2010 miwah meletus ring warsa 2013.[5]
- Wit
- Global Volcanism Program.[6]
- Wit
- Global Volcanism Program.[10]
Wastan | Wentuk | Tegeh | Letusan pinih ungkur (VEI) | Geolokasi |
---|---|---|---|---|
Emperor of China | bawah laut | −2,850 méter (−9,350 ft) | Nénten kauningang | 6°37′S 124°13′E / 6.62°S 124.22°E |
Nieuwerkerk | bawah laut | −2,285 méter (−7,497 ft) | Nénten kauningang | 6°36′00″S 124°40′30″E / 6.60°S 124.675°E |
Gunung api Wetar | stratovulkan | 282 méter (925 ft) | (3) | 6°38′31″S 126°39′00″E / 6.642°S 126.65°E |
Wurlali | stratovulkan | 868 méter (2,848 ft) | (2) | 7°07′30″S 128°40′30″E / 7.125°S 128.675°E |
Teon | stratovulkan | 655 méter (2,149 ft) | (2) | 6°55′12″S 129°07′30″E / 6.92°S 129.125°E |
Nila | stratovulkan | 781 méter (2,562 ft) | (1) | 6°44′S 129°30′E / 6.73°S 129.50°E |
Serua | stratovulkan | 641 méter (2,103 ft) | (2) | 6°18′S 130°00′E / 6.30°S 130.00°E |
Manuk | stratovulkan | 282 méter (925 ft) | Nénten kauningang | 5°31′48″S 130°17′31″E / 5.53°S 130.292°E |
Banda Api | kaldera | 640 méter (2,100 ft) | (3) | 4°31′30″S 129°52′16″E / 4.525°S 129.871°E |
Wit: Global Volcanism Program.[11]
Wit: Global Volcanism Program.[12][13]
Wit: Global Volcanism Program.[14]
Tanggal letusan | Gunung api | Tanggal berhenti | VEI | Karakteristik | Tsunami | Volume tefrit | Korban diri | Sumber |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Merapi | 4 | cv,pf,ld,lm | nénten | N/A | 138 | [15] | ||
Kelud | 4 | cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm | nénten | 0.13 km³ | 35 | [16] | ||
Colo | 4 | cv,pf,ph | nénten | N/A | 0 | [16] | ||
Galunggung | 4 | cv,pf,lf,lm | nénten | 0.37 km³ + | 68 | [17][18] | ||
Merapi | 2 | cv,pf,lf,ld,lm | nénten | 0.021 km³ | 29 | [15] | ||
Kelud | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | nénten | 0.089 km³ | 212 | [16] | ||
Agung | 5 | cv,pf,lf,lm | nénten | 1 km³ | 1,148 | [19] | ||
Kelud | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | nénten | 0.2 km³ | 7 | [16] | ||
Merapi | 3 | cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm | nénten | 0.0017 km³ | 1,369 | [15] | ||
Kelud | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | nénten | 0.19 km³ | 5,110 | [16] | ||
Awu | 3 | cv,pf,lm | ya | N/A | 1,532 | [20] | ||
Krakatau | 6 | cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc | 15–42 m | 5–8.5 km³ | 36,600 | [19][1][21] | ||
Merapi | 4 | cv,pf | nénten | 0.33 km³ | 200 | [15] | ||
Awu | 3 | cv,pf,lm | ya | 0.51±0.50 km³ | 2,806 | [20] | ||
Galunggung | 5 | cv,pf,ld,lm | nénten | 1 km³ + | 4,011 | [16] | ||
Gunung Tambora | 7 | cv,pf,cc | 1–2 m | 160 km³ | 71,000+ | [3][22] | ||
Awu | 4 | cv,pf,lm | nénten | 0.55±0.50 km³ | 963 | [20] | ||
Papandayan | 3 | cv,ph | nénten | N/A | 2,957 | [23] | ||
Merapi | nénten kauningin | 3 | cv,pf,lm | nénten | N/A | 3,000 | [15] | |
Kelud | nénten kauningin | 5 | cf,cl,lm | nénten | 1 km³ + | 10,000 | [16] | |
SM | ≈ 74,000Toba | nénten kauningin | 8 | pf,lf,cc | mungkin | 2,800 km³ | hampir memusnahkan
populasi manusia |
[2] |
Jumlah korban diri masumber saking Survei Vulkanologi Indonésia,[24] lanTanguy et al. (1998).[25]
cutetan: cv= letusan ventilasi sentral, pf=aliran piroklastik, lf=aliran lava, lm=lumpur lahar, cl=letusan danau kawah, ph=letusan freatik, ld=ekstrusi kubah lava, cc=keruntuhan kaldera, se=letusan bawah laut, fa=aktivitas fumarol, rf=letusan celah radial.
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Winchester, S. (2003). Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883 (ring Inggris). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-621285-5. Pikobet nganggit: Tanda
<ref>
tidak sah; nama "winchester2003" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda - ↑ 2,0 2,1 Oppenheimer, C. (2002). "Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 21: 1593–1609. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8. ISSN 0277-3791. Pikobet nganggit: Tanda
<ref>
tidak sah; nama "Oppenheimer2002" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda - ↑ 3,0 3,1 Stothers, Richard B. (1984). "The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath". Science. 224 (4654): 1191–1198. doi:10.1126/science.224.4654.1191. PMID 17819476. Unknown parameter
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ignored (help) Pikobet nganggit: Tanda<ref>
tidak sah; nama "Stothers1984" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda - ↑ "Kelut Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program (ring Inggris). Institusi Smithsonian. Kaaksés 2021-06-27.
- ↑ "Indonesia Miliki 127 Gunung Api Aktif". 5 2, 2012. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2018-11-17. Kaaksés 2014-01-22. Unknown parameter
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(help) - ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sumatra". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Mount Merapi Erupts". ANTARA. 18 November 2013. Kaaksés 2013-11-19.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Krakatau". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Java". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Lesser Sunda Islands". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2017-11-08. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Banda Sea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sulawesi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2006-12-30. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sangihe Islands". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2006-12-30. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Halmahera". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaaksés 2006-11-17.
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 15,3 15,4 "Merapi Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2007-08-20. Kaaksés 2006-12-19.
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 16,3 16,4 16,5 16,6 "Large Holocene Eruptions". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2012-01-17. Kaaksés 2006-12-18.
- ↑ Katili, J.A. and Sudradjat, A. (1984). "Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption". Volcanology Survei Indonésia: 102.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ↑ "Galunggung, Java, Indonésia". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at OrÉgon State University. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2008-06-16. Kaaksés 2006-12-30.
- ↑ 19,0 19,1 Michael R. Rampino and Stephen Self (1982). "Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact". Quaternary Research. 18 (2): 127–143. Bibcode:1982QuRes..18..127R. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(82)90065-5.
- ↑ 20,0 20,1 20,2 "Awu's Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2007-07-07. Kaaksés 2006-12-31.
- ↑ B.H. Choi, E. Pelinovsky, K.O. Kim and J.S. Lee (2003). "Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 3 (5): 321–332. doi:10.5194/nhess-3-321-2003. Kaarsipin saking versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2006-09-12. Kaaksés 2020-07-22.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ↑ Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra.
- ↑ "The Deadliest Eruptions". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at OrÉgon State University. Kaaksés 2009-03-15.[permanent dead link]
- ↑ "Centre of Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation". Volcanological Survey of Indonésia. Kaarsipin saking versi asli tanggal 2006-12-16. Kaaksés 2006-12-31.
- ↑ J.-C. Tanguy, Ch. Ribière, A. Scarth and W.S. Tjetjep (1998). "Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database". Bulletin of Volcanology. 60 (2): 137–144. Bibcode:1998BVol...60..137T. doi:10.1007/s004450050222.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[permanent dead link]
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