Gemstones in the Bible

A range of gemstones are mentioned in the Bible, particularly in the Old Testament and the Book of Revelation. Much has been written about the precise identification of these stones, which has ranged from speculative to increasingly scientific with the advent of archeogemology.

History

The Hebrews obtained gemstones from the Middle East, India, and Egypt.^[1] At the time of the Exodus, the Bible states that the Israelites took gemstones with them (Book of Exodus, 3:22; 12:35–6). When they were settled in the Land of Israel, they obtained gemstones from the merchant caravans traveling from Babylonia or Persia to Egypt, and those from Saba and Raamah to Tyre (Book of Ezekiel, 27:22). King Solomon even equipped a fleet which returned from Ophir, laden with gems (Books of Kings, 10:11).

Gemstones are mentioned in connection with the breastplate of the High Priest of Israel (Book of Exodus, 38:17–20; 39:10–13), the treasure of the King of Tyre (Book of Ezekiel, 28:13), and the foundations of the New Jerusalem (Book of Tobit, 13:16–7, in the Greek text, and more fully, Book of Revelation, 21:18–21). Both Book of Ezekiel 28:13 and Book of Revelation, 21:18–21 are patterned after the model of the rational^{[clarification needed]} and further allude to the Twelve Tribes of Israel.

At the time of the Septuagint translation, the stones to which the Hebrew names apply could no longer be identified, and translators used various Greek words to translate the same Hebrew word^[2]. The ancients did not classify gemstones by analyzing their composition or crystalline shapes: names were given in accordance with color, use, or place of origin. Therefore, stones of the same or nearly the same color, but of different composition or crystalline form, may bear identical names. Another problem is nomenclature; names having changed in the course of time: thus the ancient chrysolite is peridot, sapphire is lapis lazuli, etc.

Alphabetical list

The list comprises comparative etymological origins and referential locations for each stone in the Bible.

Agate

Agate - Hebrew שְׁבוֹ šəḇō; Greek ἀχάτης achates, Latin achates (Exodus 28:19,^[3] 39:12,^[4] in Heb. and Vulgate; also Ezekiel 28:13^[5] in Septuagint).

This is the second stone of the third row of the rational, where it likely represented the tribe of Asher. Hebrew šəḇō was borrowed from Akkadian šubû which itself was borrowed from Sumerian šuba ‘multicolored, agate’^[6]. The Greek and Latin names derive from the name of the river Achates (the modern Dirillo) in Sicily where this stone was first found (Theophrastus, "De lapid.", 38; Pliny, "Hist. nat.", XXXVII, liv).

The banded agate belongs to the silex family (chalcedony species) and is formed by deposits of siliceous beds in hollows of rocks. This mode of formation results in the bands of various colors which it contains. Its conchoidal cleavage makes it susceptible to a highly polished state.

Agate is not present in the Land of Israel, the etymology may indicate that it was imported from Mesopotamia, where it is also not native, originally perhaps from the Arabian Peninsula^[6], where the aqeeq (agate) industry is strong.

Amethyst

Amethyst - Greek ἀμέθυστος amethystos (Apoc. 21:20).

This is the twelfth and last stone of the foundation of the New Jerusalem. In the Septuagint, amethystos is the third stone in the third row of the rational, representing the tribe of Issachar (Exodus 28:19,^[3] 39:12^[4]); the Septuagint enumerates it among the riches of the King of Tyre (Ezekiel 28:13^[5]). Amethyst is not known appear in the Hebrew Bible, as no Hebrew gemstone name can be securely associated with the stone. The Greek name alludes to the popular belief that amethyst prevented intoxication; as such, drinking vessels were made of amethyst for festivities, and carousers wore amulets made of it to counteract the action of wine.^[7]

The amethyst is a brilliant transparent stone of a purple color and varies in shade from violet purple to rose. The amethyst is found in a variety of sizes and easily engraved or shaped.

Aquamarine

Aquamarine - Greek beryllos, Latin beryllus occupied the third place of the second row and in the breastplate, and was understood to represent Nephtali (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 13). According to the Septuagint, it was the second of the fourth row, and third of the fourth according to the Vulgate. The Septuagint to Ezekiel 28:13 mentions it in the third place, and it is also cited in the Greek text of Tob. 13:17; however, it is missing in the Vulgate. Revelations 21:20, gives it as the eighth stone of the foundation of the New Jerusalem.

Beryl is a stone composed of silica, alumina, and glucina with aquamarine and emerald being the same species of gemstone. The difference between aquamarine and emerald is color and the peculiar shade of each. Aquamarine is a beautiful sea-green variety of beryl.

Aquamarine derives its colour from a small quantity of iron oxide. Beryl occurs in the shape of either a pebble or of an hexagonal prism. It is found in metamorphic limestone, slate, mica schist, gneiss and granite. In ancient times it was imported from India via the Red Sea trade.

Garnet

Garnet - Hebrew כַּדְכֹּד‬‎ kad̠kōd̠ (Isaiah 54:12, Ezekiel 27:16) and ‮אֶקְדָּח‬‎ ʾeḳdāḥ (Ezekiel 27:16), Greek anthrax (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11; Ezech., xxviii, 13; omitted in Ezekiel 27:16), Latin carbunculus (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11; Ezech., xxviii, 13), gemma (Ezekiel 27:16). The carbuncle was the first stone of the second row of the rational and it represented Judah, and is also the eighth stone mentioned of the riches of the King of Tyre (Ezech., xxviii, 13). An imported object, not a native product, (Ezekiel 28:16); it is the third stone of the foundation of the celestial Jerusalem (Revelations 21:19).

Kad̠kōd̠ is used only twice in the Bible, possibly borrowed from a Carian word for this stone^[6]. ʾeḳdāḥ is only mentioned once, borrowed from another Semitic language^[6].

Garnet probably corresponded to the anthrax of Theophrastus (De lap., 18), the carbunculus of Pliny (Hist. nat., XXXVII, xxv), the charchedonius of Petronius, and the ardjouani of the Arabs. Theophrastus describes it as: "Its color is red and of such a kind that when it is held against the sun it resembles a burning coal." He also relates that the most perfect carbuncles were brought from Carthage, Marseilles, Egypt, and the neighbourhood of Siena.

Carnelian

Carnelian - Hebrew אֹדֶם‬‎ ʾōḏem, Greek σάρδιον sardion; Latin sardius; the first stone of the breastplate (Exodus 28:17, 39:10) representing Ruben; also the first among the stones of the King of Tyre (Ezekiel 28:13); the sixth foundation stone of the celestial city (Revelations 21:19). Hebrew ʾōḏem derives from the Hebrew root meaning "red".

Carnelian in Theophrastus (De lap., 55) and Pliny (Hist. nat., XXXVII, xxxi) derive the name of sardion the city of Sardes where, they claim, it was first found. The carnelian is a siliceous stone and a species of chalcedony. Its color is a flesh-hued red, varying from the palest flesh-color to a deep blood-red. It is of a conchoidal structure. Normally its color is without clouds or veins; but sometimes delicate veins of extremely light red or white are found arranged much like the rings of an agate. Carnelian is used for rings and seals. The finest carnelians are found in the East Indies.

Chrysolite

Chrysolite, Heb. trshysh (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., i, 16; x, 9; xxviii, 13; Cant., v, 14; Dan., x, 6); Sept., chrysolithos (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., xxviii, 13); tharsis (Cant., v, 14; Dan., x, 6); tharseis (Ezech., 1, 16; x, 9); Vulg. chrysolithus (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., x, 9; xxviii, 13; Dan., x, 6), hyacinthus (Cant., v, 14); quasi visio maris (Ezech., i, 16); Apoc., xxi, 20, chrysolithos; Vulg. chrysolithus. This is the tenth stone of the rational, representing the tribe of Zebulun; it stands fourth in the enumeration of Ezech., xxviii, 13, and is given as the seventh foundation stone of the celestial city in Apoc., xxi, 20.

None of the Hebrew texts give any hint as to the nature of this stone. However, since the Septuagint repeatedly translates the Hebrew word by chrysolithos, except where it merely transliterates it, and in Ezech., x, 9, since, moreover, the Vulgate follows this translation with very few exceptions, and Aquila, Josephus, and St. Epiphanius agree in their rendering, it can be assumed that the chrysolite of the ancients equates to our topaz.

The word tharsis very likely points to the origin of the gem (Tarshish). The modern chrysolite is a green oblong hexagonal prism of unequal sides terminated by two triangular pyramids. Topaz, or ancient chrysolite, is an octangular prism of an orange-yellow colour; it is composed of alumina, silica, hydrofluoric acid, and iron. it is found in Ceylon, Arabia, and Egypt. Several species were reported to exist (Pliny, "Hist. nat.", XXXVII, xlv) and during the Middle Ages it was believed to possess the power of relieving anxiety at night, driving away devils and to be an excellent cure for eye diseases.

Chrysoprase

Chrysoprase, Greek chrysoprasos, the tenth foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 20). This is perhaps the agate of Ex., xxviii, 20, and xxxix, 13, since the chrysoprasus was not very well known among the ancients. It is a type of green agate, composed mostly of silica and a small percentage of nickel.

Coral

Coral, Heb. ramwt (Job, xxviii, 18; Prov., xxiv, 7; Ezech., xxvii, 16); Sept. meteora, ramoth; Vulg. excelsa, sericum. The Hebrew word seems to derive from tas, "to be high", probably pertaining to a tree. Another possibility is that the name originates from a strange country, as did the coral itself. It is apparent that the ancient versions have been prone to mis-interpretation. In one instance they even went so far as to simply transliterate the Hebrew word.

In Ezech., xxvii, 16, coral is mentioned as one of the articles brought by the Syrians to Tyre. The Phoenicians mounted beads of coral on collars and garments. These corals were obtained by Babylonian pearl-flshers in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. The Hebrews apparently made very little use of this substance, and it is seldom mentioned in their writings. This also explains the difficulty experienced in scriptural translation.

Gesenius (Thesaurus, p. 1113) translates phnynys (Job, xxviii, 18; Prov., iii, 15; viii, 11; xx, 15; xxxi, 10; Lam., iv, 7) as "red coral". However, pearl has also been interpreted to be the meaning in these passages. The coral referred to in the Bible is the precious coral (corallium rubrum), the formation of which is well known. It is a calcareous secretion of certain polyps resulting in a tree-like formation. Presently coral is found in the Mediterranean, the northern coast of Africa furnishing the dark red, Sardinia the yellow or salmon-coloured, and the coast of Italy the rose-pink coral. One of the greatest coral-fisheries of the present day is Torre del Greco, near Naples.

Crystal

Crystal, Heb. ghbsh (Job, xxviii, 18), qrh (Ezech, i, 22): both words signify a glassy substance; Sept. gabis; Vulg. eminentia (Job, xxviii, 18); krystallos, crystallus (Ezech., i, 22). Crystal is a transparent mineral resembling glass, most probably a variety of quartz. Job places it in the same category with gold, onyx, sapphire, glass, coral, topaz, etc. The Targum renders the qrt of Ezech. as "ice"; the other versions translate it as "crystal". Crystal is again mentioned in Apoc., iv, 6; xxi, 11; xxii, 1. In Ps. cxlvii, 17, and Ecclus., xliii, 22, there can be no question that ice is indicated. The word zkwkyh, Job, xxviii, 17, which can be translated as crystal, means glass.

Diamond

Diamond, Heb. shmyr; Sept. adamantinos; Vulg. adamas, adamantinus (Ezech., iii, 9; Zach., vii, 12; Jer, xvii 1). Whether or not this stone is really diamond cannot be established. Many passages in Holy Scriptures point to the qualities of diamond, in particular to its hardness (Ezech., iii, 9; Zach., vii, 12; Jer., xvii, 1). In the last citation Jeremiah informs us of a diamond usage which is much the same as its usage today: "The sin of Juda is written with a pen of iron, with the point of a diamond". However, although diamond is used to engrave hard substances, other stones can serve the same purpose.

The Septuagint omits the passages of Ezech. and Zach., while the first five verses of Jer., xvii, are missing in the Cod. Vaticanus and Alexandrinus, but are found in the Complutensian edition and in the Syriac and Arabic Versions. Despite the qualities mentioned in the Bible, the stone referred to may be the limpid corindon, which exhibits the same qualities, and is used in India for the same purposes as the diamond. Diamond Color^[8] grade ranges from D - Z, where D is the whitest (or colorless) and Z is light yellow or brown.

Because diamond was not very well known among the ancients, and because of the etymological similarity between the words smiris, the Egyptian asmir, "emery", a species of corindon used to polish gemstones, and shmyr, the Hebrew word supposed to mean diamond, the Catholic Encyclopedia speculates that limpid corindon was intended.

Aben-Esra and Abarbanel translate yhlm as "diamond"; but yhlm was demonstrated above to be beryl. Diamond is made up of pure carbon, mostly of a white transparent colour, but sometimes tinted. White diamond is often regarded as the most precious because of its beauty and rarity.

Emerald

Emerald, Heb. brqm; Sept. smaragdos; Vulg. smaragdus; the third stone of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 10), representing the tribe of Levi; it is the ninth stone in Ezech., xxviii,13, and the fourth foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 19). The same stone is also mentioned in Tob., xiii, 16 (Vulg. 21); Jud., x, 21 (Vulg. 19); and in the Greek text of Ecclus., xxxii, 8, but there is no indication of it in the Manuscript B. of the Hebrew text, found in the Genizah of Cairo in 1896.

Practically all versions, including Josephus (Ant. Jud., III, vii, 5; Bell. Jud., V, v, 7) translate brhm as "emerald". The Hebrew root brq (to glitter"), from which it is probably derived, is agreed on by scholastic consensus. The word may also derive from the Sanskrit marakata which is certainly emerald nor is the Greek form smaragdos that different either. In Job, xiii, 21; Jud., x, 19; Ecclus., xxxii, 8; and Apoc., xxi, 19, the emerald is certainly the stone referred to. The word bphr also has sometimes been translated by smaragdus but this is a mistake as bphr signifies carbuncle.

Emerald is a green variety of beryl and is composed of silicate of alumina and glucina. Structurally, it is a hexagonal crystal with a brilliant reflecting green colour. The emerald is highly polished and is found in metamorphic rocks, granites, and mica schist. Many of the finest specimens have been found in Muzo, Bogota, South America but the ancients obtained the stone from Egypt and India.

Although claims have been made that the ancients knew nothing of the emerald - Pliny, Theophrastus and others clearly refute this even though the name may have been used possibly for other stones. In the Middle Ages miraculous healing powers were attributed to the emerald, among them; the power to preserve or heal visual problems.

Jacinth

Hyacinth, Greek hyakinthos; Vulg. hyacinthus (Apoc., xxi, 20); the eleventh stone of the foundation of the heavenly city. It is probably equated with Heb., the ligurius of Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12 (St. Epiphan., "De duodecim gemmis" in P. G., XLIII, 300). The stone referred to in Cant., v, 14, and called hyacinthus in the Vulgate is the Hebrew shoham, which has been shown above to be chrysolite. The exact nature of hyacinth cannot be determined as the name was applied to several stones of similar colours and most probably designated stones reminiscent of the hyacinth flower. ^[9] Hyacinth is a zircon of a crimson, red, or orange colour. It is harder than quartz and its cleavage is undulating and sometimes lamellated. Its form is that of an oblong quadrangular prism terminated on both ends by a quadrangular pyramid. It was allegedly used as a talisman against tempests.

Jasper

Jasper Heb. יָשְׁפֵ֑ה yashpeh; Sept. iaspis; Vulg. jaspis; the twelfth stone of the breastplate (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11), representing Benjamin. In the Greek and Latin texts it comes sixth, and so also in Ezech., xxviii, 13; in the Apocalypse it is the first (xxi, 19). Despite this difference of position, the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia confidently identifies jaspis with the yshphh of the Hebrew text. The gem is an anhydrate quartz composed of silica, alumina, and iron and there are jaspers of nearly every colour. It is a completely opaque stone of a conchoidal cleavage. It seems to have been obtained by the Jews from India and Egypt.

Ligurus

Ligurus, Heb. lshs; Sept. ligyrion; Vulg. ligurius; the first stone of the third row of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12), representing Gad. It is missing in the Hebrew of Ezech., xxviii, 13, but present in the Greek. This stone is probably the same as hyacinth (St. Epiphan., loc. cit.). This traditional identification, is based upon the remark that the twelve foundation stones of the celestial city in Apoc., xxi, 19–20, correspond to the twelve stones of the rational. This alone is enough to equate ligurus with hyacinth although it has been identified with tourmaline; though the latter view is rejected by most scholars.

Onyx

Onyx, Lat; Sept. onychion; Vulg. lapis onychinus; the eleventh stone of the breastplate in the Hebrew and the Vulgate (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13), representing the tribe of Joseph. In the Sept. it is the twelfth stone and the fifth in Ezech., xxviii, 13, in the Heb., but the twelfth in the Greek; it is called sardonyx and comes in the fifth place in Apoc., xxi, 20.

The exact nature of this stone is disputed because the Greek word beryllos occurs instead of the Hebrew ??? thereby indicating beryl. However, this is not so (see Beryl above). The Vulgate equates onyx with the Hebrew ??? and although this alone would be a very weak argument; there are other, stronger testimonies to the fact that the Hebrew word occurs frequently in Holy Scripture: (Gen., ii, 12; Ex., xxv, 7; xxv, 9, 27; I Par., xxxix, 2; etc.) and on each occasion, except Job, xxviii, 16, the gem is translated in the Vulgate by lapis onychinus (lapis sardonychus in Job, xxviii, 16).

The Greek is very inconsistent in its translation, rendering shhs differently in various texts; therefore in Gen., ii, 12, it is lithos prasinos, sardios in Ex. xxv, 7; xxxv, 9; smaragdos in Ex., xxviii, 9; xxxv, 27; xxxix, 6; soam, a mere transcription of the Hebrew word in I Par., xxix, 2; and onyx in Job, xxviii, 16.

Other Greek translators are more consistent: Aquila has sardonyx and Symmachus and Theodotion have onyx. The paraphrase of Onkelos had burla, the Syriac berula, both of which evidently are the Greek beryllos; "beryl". Since the translations do not observe the same order as the Hebrew in enumerating the stones of the rational (see Beryl above), it is not mandatory to accept the Greek beryllos as the translation of shhm. Therefore, relying on the testimony of the various versions it can safely be assumed that onyx is the stone signified by shhm.

Onyx is a variety of quartz analogous to agate and other crypto-crystalline species. It is composed of different layers of variously coloured carnelian much like banded agate in structure, but the layers are in even or parallel planes. This makes it well adapted for the cutting of cameos and was much used by the ancients for that purpose. The colours of the best are perfectly well defined, and are either white and black, or white, brown, and black. Some of the best specimens have been brought from India.

Pearl

It is comparatively certain that pearl (Greek margarite, Vulg. margarita) was known among the Jews, at least after the time of Solomon, as it was among the Phoenicians. The exact etymology is uncertain, but the following have been suggested: ghbysh, which signified "crystal" (see above); phnynym, which Gesenius renders by "red coral"; dr, Esth., i, 6, which is translated in the Vulg. by lapis parius, "marble"; the Arabic dar also signifies "pearl", and therefore Furst also renders the Hebrew word.

In the New Testament, pearls are mentioned in Matt., xiii, 45, 46; I Tim., ii, 9; etc. Pearl is a concretion consisting chiefly of lime carbonate found in several bivalve molluscs, but especially in avicula margaritifera. Generally, it has a whitish blue hue, sometimes showing a tinge of pink; but there are also yellow pearls. This gem was considered the most precious of all among the ancients, and was obtained from the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Persian Gulf.

Ruby

Ruby. This stone may have been either the carbuncle or the chodchod (see above). There is, however, a choice between the oriental ruby and the spinel ruby; but the words may have been used interchangeably for both. The former is extremely hard, almost as hard as diamond, and is obtained from Ceylon, India, and China. It is considered one of the most precious gems.^[1]

Sapphire

Sapphire, Heb. mghry Septuag. sappheiron; Vulg. sapphirus. Sapphire was the fifth stone of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 13), and represented the tribe of Issachar. It is the seventh stone in Ezech., xxviii, 14 (in the Hebrew text, for it occurs fifth in the Greek text); it is also the second foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 19).

The genuine sapphire is a beautiful blue hyaline corindon and is composed of nearly pure alumina, its colour resulting from the presence of iron oxide. The ancients also referred to lapis-lazuli as sapphire, which is likewise a blue stone, often speckled with shining pyrites giving it the appearance of being sprinkled with gold dust. It is composed of silica, alumina, and alkali and is an opaque substance easily engraved. Debate still continues as to which stone is precisely referred to in the Bible. Both may be meant, but lapis-lazuli seems more probable as its qualities are better suited for the purposes of engraving (Lam., iv, 7; Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 13). Sapphire was obtained from India.

Sard

Sard and sardonyx are often confused by interpreters. Sard is carnelian, while sardonyx is a species of onyx.

Sardonyx

Sardonyx has a structure similar to onyx, but is usually composed of alternate layers of white chalcedony and carnelian, although carnelian may be associated with layers of white, brown, and black chalcedony. The ancients obtained onyx from Arabia, Egypt, and India.

Topaz

Topaz, Heb. ghtrh; Sept. topazion; Vulg. topazius, the second stone of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 19), representing Simeon; also the second stone in Ezech., xxviii, 13; the ninth foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 20) and also mentioned in Job, xxviii, 19.

This topaz is generally believed to have been chrysolite rather than the more generally known topaz. Oriental topaz is composed of nearly pure alumina, silica, and fluoric acid; its shape is an orthorhombic prism with a cleavage transverse to its long axis. It is extremely hard and has a double refraction. When rubbed or heated it becomes highly electric.

It varies in colour according to the country of origin. Australian topaz is green or yellow; the Tasmanian clear, bright, and transparent; the Saxon pale violet; the Bohemian sea-green and the Brazilian red, varying from a pale red to a deep carmine. The ancients very probably obtained it from the East.

References

^ ^a ^b Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Precious Stones in the Bible" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Harrell, James A. (2011-01-01). "Old Testament Gemstones: A Philological, Geological, and Archaeological Assessment of the Septuagint". Bulletin for Biblical Research. 21 (2): 141–171. doi:10.2307/26424638. ISSN 1065-223X.
^ ^a ^b Exodus 28 | NLT Bible | YouVersion.
^ ^a ^b Exodus 39 | NLT Bible | YouVersion.
^ ^a ^b Ezekiel 28 | NLT Bible | YouVersion.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ayil, Ephraim S. (2024-08-26), "Identifying the Stones of Classical Hebrew: A Modern Philological Approach", Identifying the Stones of Classical Hebrew, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-67800-2, retrieved 2024-12-29
^ See, for example: The earliest reference to amethyst as a symbol of sobriety is in a poem by Asclepiades of Samos (born ≈320 BCE). See "XXX. Kleopatra's Ring" in: Edward Storer, trans., The Windflowers of Asklepiades and the Poems of Poseidippos (London, England: Egoist Press, 1920), page 14. An epigram by Plato the Younger also mentions amethyst in connection with drinking: "The stone is an amethyst; but I, the tipler Dionysus, say, "Let it either persuade me to be sober, or let it learn to get drunk." See George Burges et al., The Greek Anthology,... (London, England: George Bell and Sons, 1881), p. 369. Pliny says about amethysts: "The falsehoods of the magicians would persuade us that these stones are preventive of inebriety, and that it is from this that they have derived their name." See Chapter 40 of Book 37 of Pliny the Elder's The Natural History.
^ "Diamond Color". GemsNY Corp. Retrieved 2024-08-22.
^ Exodus xxviii:19, xxxix:12