Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Infobox martial art
| image = Wrestlers LACMA M.88.133.2 (3 of 3).jpg
| imagecaption = 5th-century terracotta sculpture of wrestlers from [[Uttar Pradesh, India]].
| name = Malla-yuddha
| aka =
| focus = [[Grappling]]
| hardness =
| country = [[Indian subcontinent]]
| olympic = No
| creator =
| parenthood =
| descendant arts = [[Pehlwani]]<br/>[[Naban]]
| famous_pract = [[Siddhartha Gautama]]<br/>[[Narasimhavarman]]<br/>[[Krishna Deva Raya]]<br/>[[Deva Raya II]]
| meaning = Grappling-combat
}}
'''{{IAST|Malla-yuddha}}''' ([[Devanagari]]: मल्लयुद्ध,<ref name=Alter1992b>{{cite book |last=Alter |first=Joseph S. |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |date=August 1992b |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley}}</ref> {{lang-bn|মল্লযুদ্ধ}}, [[Odia language|Odia]]: ମଲ୍ଲ ଯୁଦ୍ଧ, [[Kannada language|Kannada]]: ಮಲ್ಲಯುದ್ಧ, [[Telugu language|Telugu]]: మల్ల యుద్ధం ''malla-yuddhaṁ'', [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: மல்யுத்தம் ''malyutham'', [[Thai language|Thai]]: มัลละยุทธ์ ''mạllayutṭh̒'') is the traditional form of combat-wrestling originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=Alter>{{cite journal |first=Joseph S. |last=Alter |date=May 1992a |title=the sannyasi and the Indian wrestler: the anatomy of a relationship |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |issn=0094-0496 |doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070 }}</ref> It is closely related to [[Southeast Asia]]n wrestling styles such as [[naban]] and is the ancestor of [[pehlwani|kusti]].
Malla-yuddha incorporates grappling, joint-breaking, punching, biting, choking and [[varma kalai|pressure point striking]]. Matches were traditionally codified into four types which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as ''yuddha''.<ref name=Draeger>{{cite book |title=Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts |author=[[Donn F. Draeger]] and [[Robert W. Smith (writer)|Robert W. Smith]] |year=1969 |publisher=Kodansha International Limited}}</ref> Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practised. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, still exists in [[south India]]. Additionally, malla-yuddha is divided into four styles, each named after Hindu gods and legendary fighters:
*''[[Hanuman]]ti'' concentrates on technical superiority,
*''[[Jambavan|Jambuvanti]]'' uses locks and holds to force the opponent into submission,
*''[[Jarasandha|Jarasandhi]]'' concentrates on breaking the limbs and joints while
*''[[Bhima]]seni'' focuses on sheer strength.
==Terminology==
{{Indian martial arts sidebar}}
In [[Sanskrit]], ''{{IAST|mallayuddha}}'' literally translates to "wrestling combat". Strictly speaking, the term denotes a single pugilistic encounter or prize-fight rather than a style or school of wrestling. It is a [[tatpurusha]] compound of ''{{IAST|malla}}'' (wrestler, boxer, athlete) and ''{{IAST|yuddha}}'' or ''{{IAST|juddho}}'' (fight, battle, conflict). The compound is first attested in the [[Mahabharata]] referring to boxing matches such as those fought by [[Bhima]]. Another word for a sportive wrestling match or athletic sports more generally is [[malakhra|mallakrמḍa]]. The second element, ''{{IAST|krמḍa}}'' (sport, play, pastime, amusement) implies a more limited-contact style of [[folk wrestling]] rather than true grappling combat.
The term ''{{IAST|malla}}'' was historically a proper name referring to, among other things, an [[asura]] known as ''{{IAST|mallגsura}}'' and the name of a tribe from the [[Malla Kingdom]] mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]]. The name Malla was also used in this sense for [[Malla (India)|an ancient mahajanapada]], a [[Malla (Nepal)|Nepalese dynasty]] descended from them, and the [[Mallabhum]] kingdom in Bishnapur. In the [[Manusmriti]] (10.22; 12.45), it is the technical term for the offspring of an out-caste [[kshatriya]] by a kshatriya female who was previously the wife of another out-caste.
==History==
[[File:Bhima Slays Jarasandha.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bhima]] kills [[Jarasandha]] in a wrestling match, a folio from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'']]
Wrestling in the [[Indian subcontinent]] has a history of at least 5000 years<ref name=Draeger/> making it the oldest known codified form of fighting in the region. Competitions held for entertainment were popular among all social classes, with even kings and other royalty taking part. Wrestlers represented their kings in matches between rival kingdoms; death matches before the royal court served as a way to settle disputes and avoid large-scale wars. As such, professional wrestlers were held in high regard. In pastoral communities, people would even wrestle against steers.
The first written attestation of the term ''{{IAST|mallayuddha}}'' is found in the [[Ramayana]] epic, in the context of a wrestling match between the [[vanara]] King [[Vali (Ramayana)|Bali]] and [[Ravana]], the king of [[Lanka]]. [[Hanuman]], the god in Ramayana, is worshipped as the patron of wrestlers and general feats of strength. The [[Mahabharata]] epic also describes a wrestling match between [[Bhima]] and [[Jarasandha]].<ref name=Alter1992a>{{cite journal |first=Joseph S. |last=Alter |date=May 1992a |title=The "sannyasi" and the Indian Wrestler: The Anatomy of a Relationship |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |issn=0094-0496 |doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070}}</ref> Other early literary descriptions of wrestling matches include the story of [[Balarama]] and [[Krishna]].
Stories describing [[Krishna]] report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> He defeated [[Kans]], king of Mathura, in a wrestling match and became new king in his place. [[Siddhartha Gautama]] himself was said to be an expert wrestler, archer and sword-fighter before becoming the [[Buddha]]. Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by [[India]]n wrestlers to the pre-classical era.<ref name=Svinth/> Later, the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman]] acquired the moniker Mahamalla meaning "great wrestler" for his passion and prowess in the art.
Competitions in medieval times were announced by a [[kanjira]]-player a week beforehand. Matches took place at the palace entrance, in an enclosure set aside for games and shows. The wrestlers typically came of their own accord during public festivals, along with magicians, actors and acrobats. Other times they would be hired by nobles to compete. Winners were awarded a substantial cash prize from the king and presented with a victory standard. Possession of this standard brought national distinction.<ref>{{cite book |title=Daily Life in Ancient India |author=[[Jeannine Auboyer]]|year=1965 |page=252 |publisher=Phoenix Press |isbn=1-84212-591-5}}</ref>
<blockquote>The scene of action was gay with flags flapping, and the citizenry quickly packed the rows of benches. When the wrestlers climbed into the arena, they strutted around, flexing their muscles, leaping in the air, crying out and clapping their hands. Then they grappled, holding each other tightly around the waist, their necks resting on each other's shoulder, their legs entwined, while each attempted to win a fall or break the hold.</blockquote>
The ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138) is a royal treatise on fine arts and leisure. The chapter entitled ''Malla Vinod'' describes the classification of wrestlers into types by age, size and strength. It also outlines how the wrestlers were to exercise and what they were to eat. In particular the king was responsible for providing the wrestlers with pulses, meat, milk, sugar as well as "high-class sweets". The wrestlers were kept isolated from the women of the court and were expected to devote themselves to building their bodies. The Manasollasa gives the names of moves and exercises but does not provide descriptions.<ref name=Alter1992b/>
The ''Malla Purana'' is a [[Kula Purana]] associated with the [[Jyesthimalla]], a Brahmin [[jāti]] of wrestlers from [[Gujarat]], dating most likely to the 13th century. It categorizes and classifies types of wrestlers, defines necessary physical characteristics, describes types of exercises and techniques of wrestling as well as the preparation of the wrestling pit, and provides a fairly precise account of which foods wrestlers should eat in each season of the year.<ref name=Alter1992b/>
As the influence of Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia, malla-yuddha was adopted in what are now [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Java]], and other neighbouring countries. It was popular not only among commoners but also patronized by royalty. The legendary hero [[Badang]] was said to have engaged in such a wrestling match against a visiting champion in [[Singapore]].
Traditional Indian wrestling first began to decline in the north after the medieval Muslim invasions when influences from Persian wrestling were incorporated into native malla-yuddha. Under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]], courtly fashion favoured the Persianate [[pehlwani]] style. Traditional malla-yuddha remained popular in the south, however, and was particularly common in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. The 16th-century Jaina classic ''Bharatesa Vaibhava'' describes wrestlers challenging their opponents with grunts and traditional signs of patting the shoulders. Sculptures at [[Bhatkal]] depict wrestling matches, including female wrestlers. As part of his daily routine, the king [[Krishna Deva Raya]] would rise early and exercise his muscles with the [[gada (mace)]] and sword before wrestling with his favourite opponent. His many wives were tended to by only female servants and guards, and among the 12,000 women in the palace were those who wrestled and others who fought with sword and shield. During the [[Navaratri]] festival, wrestlers from around the empire would come to the capital in [[Karnataka]] to compete in front of the king, as described by the Portuguese traveller [[Domingo Paes]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar |author=Robert Sewell |year=1982 |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=0-543-92588-9}}</ref>
<blockquote>Then the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth, and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give one another fine falls too.</blockquote>
Malla-yuddha is now virtually extinct in the [[north India|northern states]], but most of its traditions are perpetuated in modern kusti. The descendents of the Jyesti clan continued to practice their ancestral arts of malla-yuddha and [[vajra-musti]] into the 1980s but rarely do so today. Malla-yuddha has survived in [[south India]] however, and can still be seen in [[Karnataka]]<ref>"The Lost Temples Of India". TLC. 1999</ref> and pockets of [[Tamil Nadu]] today.
==Training==
[[File:Jarasandha's Akhara1.JPG|thumb|The historic [[Jarasandha]]'s Akhara (wrestling arena) mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]] epic, at Rajgir in [[Bihar]], India.]]
Wrestlers train and fight in a traditional arena or [[akhara]]. Matches take place in a clay or dirt pit, thirty feet across and either square or circular in shape. The soil of the floor is mixed with various ingredients, including [[ghee]]. Before training, the floor is raked of any pebbles or stones. Water is added approximately every three days to keep it at the right consistency; soft enough to avoid injury but hard enough so as not to impede the wrestlers' movements. Wrestlers begin each session by flattening the soil, an act which is considered both a part of endurance training and an exercise in self-discipline. During practice, wrestlers throw a few handfuls of dirt onto their own bodies and that of their opponents as a form of blessing, which also provides for a better grip. Once the arena has been prepared a prayer is offered to the gym's patron deity, most commonly [[Hanuman]]. Every training hall has a small makeshift altar for this purpose, where incense is lit and small yellow flower garlands are offered to the god. This is followed by paying respect to the [[guru]] by touching the head to his feet, a traditional sign of respect for elders in the Indian subcontinent.
Many wrestlers live at their training hall but this is not always required. Traditionally revered as extensions of [[Hanuman]], all wrestlers are required to abstain from sex, smoking and drinking so the body remains pure and the wrestlers are able to focus on cultivating themselves physically, mentally and spiritually. This purity is also said to help achieve the highest level of martial and sporting perfection. A wrestler's only belongings are a blanket, a [[kowpeenam]] (loincloth) and some clothes. In this regard, they are often compared to Hindu-Buddhist holy men.<ref name=Alter/>
Boys typically start training at the age of ten to twelve. To avoid stunting their growth, young trainees are first taught ''kundakavartana'', callisthenics and exercises to develop their overall strength and endurance without equipment. Exercises that employ the wrestler's own bodyweight include the sun salutation ([[Surya Namaskara]]), [[shirshasan]]a, [[Sitting#Parallel legs|Hindu squat]] (''bethak'') and the [[Press up#Hindu press ups|Hindu press-up]] (''danda''), which are also found in [[hatha yoga]]. After acquiring the necessary power and stamina, students may begin ''khambhasrama'', referring to exercises that use the [[mallakhamba]] or wrestler's pillar. There are a number of pillars, although the most common is a free-standing upright pole, some eight to ten inches in diameter, planted into the ground. Wrestlers mount, dismount and utilize this pole for various complex callisthenics designed to develop their grip, stamina, and strength in the arms, legs and upper-body. In a later variation, the pole was replaced with a hanging rope. Rope mallakhamba is today most commonly practiced by children as a spectator sport in itself rather than its traditional role as a form of training for wrestling.
Other training concepts include the following.
*''Vyayam'': Physical training in general. This includes rope climbing, log pulling, running and swimming.
*''Rangasrama'': Refers to the wrestling itself and its techniques. Includes locks, submission holds, takedowns and, formerly, strikes.
*''Gonitaka'': Exercises done with a large stone ring called a ''gar nal'' in [[Hindi]]. It can be swung, lifted, or worn around the neck to add resistance to press-ups and squats.
*''Pramada'': Exercises performed with the [[gada (mace)]]. An exercise gada is a heavy round stone attached to the end of a meter-long bamboo stick.
*''Uhapohasrama'': Discussion of tactics and strategies.
*''Mardana'': Traditional massage. Wrestlers are given massages and also taught how to massage.
==See also==
*[[Akhara]]
*[[Boli Khela]]
*[[Inbuan]]
*[[Khmer traditional wrestling]]
*[[Malakhra]]
*[[Mallakhamba]]
*[[Mukna]]
*[[Naban]]
*[[Pehlwani]]
*[[Vajra-mushti]]
==Notes==
<references/>
==References==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090516231037/http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Martial arts of India] by R. Venkatachalam (1999)
{{Grappling}}
{{Wrestling in India}}
{{Indian martial arts}}
{{martial arts}}
[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Pakistani martial arts]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi martial arts]]
[[Category:Wrestling in India]]
[[Category:Wrestling in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Sports originating in South Asia]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Infobox martial art
| image = Wrestlers LACMA M.88.133.2 (3 of 3).jpg
| imagecaption = 5th-century terracotta sculpture of wrestlers from [[Uttar Pradesh, India]].
| name = Malla-yuddha
| aka =
| focus = [[Grappling]]
| hardness =
| country = [[Indian subcontinent]]
| olympic = No
| creator =
| parenthood =
| descendant arts = [[Pehlwani]]<br/>[[Naban]]
| famous_pract = [[Siddhartha Gautama]]<br/>[[Narasimhavarman]]<br/>[[Krishna Deva Raya]]<br/>[[Deva Raya II]]
| meaning = Grappling-combat
}}
'''{{IAST|Malla-yuddha}}''' ([[Devanagari]]: मल्लयुद्ध,<ref name=Alter1992b>{{cite book |last=Alter |first=Joseph S. |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |date=August 1992b |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley}}</ref> {{lang-bn|মল্লযুদ্ধ}}, [[Odia language|Odia]]: ମଲ୍ଲ ଯୁଦ୍ଧ, [[Kannada language|Kannada]]: ಮಲ್ಲಯುದ್ಧ, [[Telugu language|Telugu]]: మల్ల యుద్ధం ''malla-yuddhaṁ'', [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: மல்யுத்தம் ''malyutham'', [[Thai language|Thai]]: มัลละยุทธ์ ''mạllayutṭh̒'') is the traditional form of combat-wrestling originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=Alter>{{cite journal |first=Joseph S. |last=Alter |date=May 1992a |title=the sannyasi and the Indian wrestler: the anatomy of a relationship |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |issn=0094-0496 |doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070 }}</ref> It is closely related to [[Southeast Asia]]n wrestling styles such as [[naban]] and is the ancestor of [[pehlwani|kusti]].
Malla-yuddha incorporates grappling, joint-breaking, punching, biting, choking and [[varma kalai|pressure point striking]]. Matches were traditionally codified into four types which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as ''yuddha''.<ref name=Draeger>{{cite book |title=Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts |author=[[Donn F. Draeger]] and [[Robert W. Smith (writer)|Robert W. Smith]] |year=1969 |publisher=Kodansha International Limited}}</ref> Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practised. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, still exists in [[south India]]. Additionally, malla-yuddha is divided into four styles, each named after Hindu gods and legendary fighters:
*''[[Hanuman]]ti'' concentrates on technical superiority,
*''[[Jambavan|Jambuvanti]]'' uses locks and holds to force the opponent into submission,
*''[[Jarasandha|Jarasandhi]]'' concentrates on breaking the limbs and joints while
*''[[Bhima]]seni'' focuses on sheer strength.
==Terminology==
{{Indian martial arts sidebar}}
In [[Sanskrit]], ''{{IAST|mallayuddha}}'' literally translates to "wrestling combat". Strictly speaking, the term denotes a single pugilistic encounter or prize-fight rather than a style or school of wrestling. It is a [[tatpurusha]] compound of ''{{IAST|malla}}'' (wrestler, boxer, athlete) and ''{{IAST|yuddha}}'' or ''{{IAST|juddho}}'' (fight, battle, conflict). The compound is first attested in the [[Mahabharata]] referring to boxing matches such as those fought by [[Bhima]]. Another word for a sportive wrestling match or athletic sports more generally is [[malakhra|mallakrמḍa]]. The second element, ''{{IAST|krמḍa}}'' (sport, play, pastime, amusement) implies a more limited-contact style of [[folk wrestling]] rather than true grappling combat.
The term ''{{IAST|malla}}'' was historically a proper name referring to, among other things, an [[asura]] known as ''{{IAST|mallגsura}}'' and the name of a tribe from the [[Malla Kingdom]] mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]]. The name Malla was also used in this sense for [[Malla (India)|an ancient mahajanapada]], a [[Malla (Nepal)|Nepalese dynasty]] descended from them, and the [[Mallabhum]] kingdom in Bishnapur. In the [[Manusmriti]] (10.22; 12.45), it is the technical term for the offspring of an out-caste [[kshatriya]] by a kshatriya female who was previously the wife of another out-caste.
==History==
[[File:Bhima Slays Jarasandha.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bhima]] kills [[Jarasandha]] in a wrestling match, a folio from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'']]
Wrestling in the [[Indian subcontinent]] has a history of at least 5000 years<ref name=Draeger/> making it the oldest known codified form of fighting in the region. Competitions held for entertainment were popular among all social classes, with even kings and other royalty taking part. Wrestlers represented their kings in matches between rival kingdoms; death matches before the royal court served as a way to settle disputes and avoid large-scale wars. As such, professional wrestlers were held in high regard. In pastoral communities, people would even wrestle against steers.
The first written attestation of the term ''{{IAST|mallayuddha}}'' is found in the [[Ramayana]] epic, in the context of a wrestling match between the [[vanara]] King [[Vali (Ramayana)|Bali]] and [[Ravana]], the king of [[Lanka]]. [[Hanuman]], the god in Ramayana, is worshipped as the patron of wrestlers and general feats of strength. The [[Mahabharata]] epic also describes a wrestling match between [[Bhima]] and [[Jarasandha]].<ref name=Alter1992a>{{cite journal |first=Joseph S. |last=Alter |date=May 1992a |title=The "sannyasi" and the Indian Wrestler: The Anatomy of a Relationship |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |issn=0094-0496 |doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070}}</ref> Other early literary descriptions of wrestling matches include the story of [[Balarama]] and [[Krishna]].
Stories describing [[Krishna]] report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> He defeated [[Kans]], king of Mathura, in a wrestling match and became new king in his place. [[Siddhartha Gautama]] himself was said to be an expert wrestler, archer and sword-fighter before becoming the [[Buddha]]. Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by [[India]]n wrestlers to the pre-classical era.<ref name=Svinth/> Later, the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman]] acquired the moniker Mahamalla meaning "great wrestler" for his passion and prowess in the art.
Competitions in medieval times were announced by a [[kanjira]]-player a week beforehand. Matches took place at the palace entrance, in an enclosure set aside for games and shows. The wrestlers typically came of their own accord during public festivals, along with magicians, actors and acrobats. Other times they would be hired by nobles to compete. Winners were awarded a substantial cash prize from the king and presented with a victory standard. Possession of this standard brought national distinction.<ref>{{cite book |title=Daily Life in Ancient India |author=[[Jeannine Auboyer]]|year=1965 |page=252 |publisher=Phoenix Press |isbn=1-84212-591-5}}</ref>
<blockquote>The scene of action was gay with flags flapping, and the citizenry quickly packed the rows of benches. When the wrestlers climbed into the arena, they strutted around, flexing their muscles, leaping in the air, crying out and clapping their hands. Then they grappled, holding each other tightly around the waist, their necks resting on each other's shoulder, their legs entwined, while each attempted to win a fall or break the hold.</blockquote>
The ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138) is a royal treatise on fine arts and leisure. The chapter entitled ''Malla Vinod'' describes the classification of wrestlers into types by age, size and strength. It also outlines how the wrestlers were to exercise and what they were to eat. In particular the king was responsible for providing the wrestlers with pulses, meat, milk, sugar as well as "high-class sweets". The wrestlers were kept isolated from the women of the court and were expected to devote themselves to building their bodies. The Manasollasa gives the names of moves and exercises but does not provide descriptions.<ref name=Alter1992b/>
The ''Malla Purana'' is a [[Kula Purana]] associated with the [[Jyesthimalla]], a Brahmin [[jāti]] of wrestlers from [[Gujarat]], dating most likely to the 13th century. It categorizes and classifies types of wrestlers, defines necessary physical characteristics, describes types of exercises and techniques of wrestling as well as the preparation of the wrestling pit, and provides a fairly precise account of which foods wrestlers should eat in each season of the year.<ref name=Alter1992b/>
As the influence of Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia, malla-yuddha was adopted in what are now [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Java]], and other neighbouring countries. It was popular not only among commoners but also patronized by royalty. The legendary hero [[Badang]] was said to have engaged in such a wrestling match against a visiting champion in [[Singapore]].
Traditional Indian wrestling first began to decline in the north after the medieval Muslim invasions when influences from Persian wrestling were incorporated into native malla-yuddha. Under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]], courtly fashion favoured the Persianate [[pehlwani]] style. Traditional malla-yuddha remained popular in the south, however, and was particularly common in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. The 16th-century Jaina classic ''Bharatesa Vaibhava'' describes wrestlers challenging their opponents with grunts and traditional signs of patting the shoulders. Sculptures at [[Bhatkal]] depict wrestling matches, including female wrestlers. As part of his daily routine, the king [[Krishna Deva Raya]] would rise early and exercise his muscles with the [[gada (mace)]] and sword before wrestling with his favourite opponent. His many wives were tended to by only female servants and guards, and among the 12,000 women in the palace were those who wrestled and others who fought with sword and shield. During the [[Navaratri]] festival, wrestlers from around the empire would come to the capital in [[Karnataka]] to compete in front of the king, as described by the Portuguese traveller [[Domingo Paes]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar |author=Robert Sewell |year=1982 |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=0-543-92588-9}}</ref>
<blockquote>Then the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth, and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give one another fine falls too.</blockquote>
Malla-yuddha is now virtually extinct in the [[north India|northern states]], but most of its traditions are perpetuated in modern kusti. The descendents of the Jyesti clan continued to practice their ancestral arts of malla-yuddha and [[vajra-musti]] into the 1980s but rarely do so today. Malla-yuddha has survived in [[south India]] however, and can still be seen in [[Karnataka]]<ref>"The Lost Temples Of India". TLC. 1999</ref> and pockets of [[Tamil Nadu]] today.
==Training==
[[File:Jarasandha's Akhara1.JPG|thumb|The historic [[Jarasandha]]'s Akhara (wrestling arena) mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]] epic, at Rajgir in [[Bihar]], India.]]
Wrestlers train and fight in a traditional arena or [[akhara]]. Matches take place in a clay or dirt pit, thirty feet across and either square or circular in shape. The soil of the floor is mixed with various ingredients, including [[ghee]]. Before training, the floor is raked of any pebbles or stones. Water is added approximately every three days to keep it at the right consistency; soft enough to avoid injury but hard enough so as not to impede the wrestlers' movements. Wrestlers begin each session by flattening the soil, an act which is considered both a part of endurance training and an exercise in self-discipline. During practice, wrestlers throw a few handfuls of dirt onto their own bodies and that of their opponents as a form of blessing, which also provides for a better grip. Once the arena has been prepared a prayer is offered to the gym's patron deity, most commonly [[Hanuman]]. Every training hall has a small makeshift altar for this purpose, where incense is lit and small yellow flower garlands are offered to the god. This is followed by paying respect to the [[guru]] by touching the head to his feet, a traditional sign of respect for elders in the Indian subcontinent. This intense training is no task for a mere mortal and can only be accomplished by the father of Gabriel Dass, the worst fortnite player in existence. This shows that the abstinence of power in gaming leads to a sucessful wrestling career.
Many wrestlers live at their training hall but this is not always required. Traditionally revered as extensions of [[Hanuman]], all wrestlers are required to abstain from sex, smoking and drinking so the body remains pure and the wrestlers are able to focus on cultivating themselves physically, mentally and spiritually. This purity is also said to help achieve the highest level of martial and sporting perfection. A wrestler's only belongings are a blanket, a [[kowpeenam]] (loincloth) and some clothes. In this regard, they are often compared to Hindu-Buddhist holy men.<ref name=Alter/>
Boys typically start training at the age of ten to twelve. To avoid stunting their growth, young trainees are first taught ''kundakavartana'', callisthenics and exercises to develop their overall strength and endurance without equipment. Exercises that employ the wrestler's own bodyweight include the sun salutation ([[Surya Namaskara]]), [[shirshasan]]a, [[Sitting#Parallel legs|Hindu squat]] (''bethak'') and the [[Press up#Hindu press ups|Hindu press-up]] (''danda''), which are also found in [[hatha yoga]]. After acquiring the necessary power and stamina, students may begin ''khambhasrama'', referring to exercises that use the [[mallakhamba]] or wrestler's pillar. There are a number of pillars, although the most common is a free-standing upright pole, some eight to ten inches in diameter, planted into the ground. Wrestlers mount, dismount and utilize this pole for various complex callisthenics designed to develop their grip, stamina, and strength in the arms, legs and upper-body. In a later variation, the pole was replaced with a hanging rope. Rope mallakhamba is today most commonly practiced by children as a spectator sport in itself rather than its traditional role as a form of training for wrestling.
Other training concepts include the following.
*''Vyayam'': Physical training in general. This includes rope climbing, log pulling, running and swimming.
*''Rangasrama'': Refers to the wrestling itself and its techniques. Includes locks, submission holds, takedowns and, formerly, strikes.
*''Gonitaka'': Exercises done with a large stone ring called a ''gar nal'' in [[Hindi]]. It can be swung, lifted, or worn around the neck to add resistance to press-ups and squats.
*''Pramada'': Exercises performed with the [[gada (mace)]]. An exercise gada is a heavy round stone attached to the end of a meter-long bamboo stick.
*''Uhapohasrama'': Discussion of tactics and strategies.
*''Mardana'': Traditional massage. Wrestlers are given massages and also taught how to massage.
==See also==
*[[Akhara]]
*[[Boli Khela]]
*[[Inbuan]]
*[[Khmer traditional wrestling]]
*[[Malakhra]]
*[[Mallakhamba]]
*[[Mukna]]
*[[Naban]]
*[[Pehlwani]]
*[[Vajra-mushti]]
==Notes==
<references/>
==References==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090516231037/http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Martial arts of India] by R. Venkatachalam (1999)
{{Grappling}}
{{Wrestling in India}}
{{Indian martial arts}}
{{martial arts}}
[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Pakistani martial arts]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi martial arts]]
[[Category:Wrestling in India]]
[[Category:Wrestling in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Sports originating in South Asia]]' |
