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{{short description|Hot spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam}}
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[[File:Geyser animation.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A cross-section of a geyser in action]]
A '''geyser''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|aɪ|z|ər}}, {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|g|iː|z|ər}})<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser | title = Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online | accessdate = 2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Oxford Dictionaries|last=|first=|date=|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> is a [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]] characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular [[hydrogeological]] conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active [[volcanic]] areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of [[magma]]. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around {{convert|2000|m|ft}} where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent (a [[hydrothermal explosion]]).
A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing [[mineral]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby [[hot spring]]s, [[earthquake]] influences, and human intervention.<ref>Bryan, T.S. 1995</ref> Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to planet Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as [[#Cryogeysers|cryogeysers]], have been observed on several of the [[Natural satellite|moons]] of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]], while [[nitrogen]] eruptions have been observed on [[Neptune]]'s moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. There are also signs of [[Geysers on Mars|carbon dioxide eruptions]] from the southern polar ice cap of [[Mars]]. In the latter two cases, instead of being driven by geothermal energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state [[greenhouse effect]].
== Etymology ==
The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic ''Geysir'', the name of a particular spring in Iceland. It is related to the Icelandic word ''geysa'' ‘to gush’.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Lexico Dictionaries|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref>
== Form and function ==
[[File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone.jpg|alt=Water and steam erupting from rocky, barren ground. Fir trees in the background.|[[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb|250px]]
Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.<ref name="wyo">[http://www.wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm How geysers form] Gregory L.</ref> As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<ref name="wyo" />
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from [[magma]] that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&pg=PA127&dq=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj21vfdw9DUAhUF2mMKHfB9CoQQ6AEIRzAH#v=onepage&q=heat%20for%20geyser%20formation%20comes%20from%20near%20surface%20magma&f=false|title=Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards|last=Erickson|first=Jon|date=2014-05-14|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438109695|language=en}}</ref> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system made of [[fracture]]s, [[fissure]]s, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.<ref name="wyo" />
== Eruptions ==
{| class="infobox" style="width: 300px;"
|-
|
{| style="background: white; white-space: nowrap;" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=2
|-
|[[File:geyser exploding 1 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 2 large.jpg|150px]]
|-
|[[File:geyser exploding 4 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 3 large.jpg|150px]]
|}
|-
|[[Strokkur|Strokkur geyser]] erupting (clockwise from top left)
# Steam rises from heated water
# Pulses of water swell upward
# Surface is broken
# Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe
|}
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by [[magma]]. The [[geothermal (geology)|geothermally]] heated water then rises back toward the surface by [[convection]] through porous and fractured rocks. Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.<ref name="leekry">{{cite web |last=Krystek |first=Lee |url=http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm |title=Weird Geology: Geysers] |publisher=Museum of Unnatural Mystery |accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref>
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, [[Convection|convective cooling]] of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a [[pressure cooker]], allowing the water in the reservoir to become [[superheating|superheated]], i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.<ref name="leekry" />
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins which forces steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into [[steam]], boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.<ref name="wyo" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Lewin |first=Sarah |title = Instant Egghead: How do geysers erupt over and over? |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/instant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over |accessdate=2015-05-17 }}</ref>
A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called [[geyserite]] found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite—mostly [[silicon dioxide]] (SiO<sub>2</sub>), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.<ref name="leekry" />
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; [[Strokkur]] in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while [[Grand Geyser]] in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.<ref name="leekry" />
== General categorization ==
There are two types of geysers: ''fountain geysers'' which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of [[siliceous sinter]] (including [[geyserite]]), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]], perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. [[Grand Geyser]], the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although [[Geysir]] in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |title=Yellowstone thermal features |publisher=Yahoo! |date=2008-04-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116174629/http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |archivedate=November 16, 2007 }}</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = left
|width1 = 202
|width2 = 180
|image1 = Fountain geyser.jpg
|image2 = Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park.jpg
|alt1 = Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool.
|alt2 = High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth.
|footer = [[Fountain Geyser]] erupting from the pool (left) and [[Old Faithful geyser]] (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in [[Yellowstone National Park]] erupts approximately every 91 minutes (right).
}}
There are many volcanic areas in the world that have [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
As a result, most geysers form in places where there is volcanic [[rhyolite]] rock which dissolves in hot water and forms [[mineral]] deposits called siliceous sinter, or [[geyserite]], along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over time, these deposits strengthen the channel walls by cementing the rock together tightly, thus enabling the geyser to persist, as mentioned in the previous section.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by [[geothermal power]] plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of [[surfactant]]s to the water.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
== Biology ==
{{Further|Thermophile|Hyperthermophile}}
[[File:Grand prismatic spring.jpg|alt=Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground.|thumb|300px|Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park]]
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]]) in the form of [[thermophiles|thermophilic]] [[prokaryote]]s. No known [[eukaryote]] can survive over {{convert|60|°C|°F|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="bot">Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171-185</ref>
In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around {{convert|73|°C|°F|adj=mid|maximum}}—the upper limit for the survival of [[cyanobacteria]], as the structure of key cellular [[protein]]s and [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around {{convert|55|°C|°F|adj=mid|average|0}}.<ref name="bot" />
However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of [[water (molecule)|water]]. Dozens of such bacteria are known.<ref>Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; [http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf Extremophiles] atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01</ref>
[[Thermophile]]s prefer temperatures from {{convert|50|to|70|°C|°F|0}}, whilst [[hyperthermophile]]s grow better at temperatures as high as {{convert|80|to|110|°C|°F|0}}. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable [[tool]]s, that are important in [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]],<ref>Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, '''65(1)''', 1-34.</ref> for example in manufacturing [[antibiotic]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[detergent]]s (by the use of heat-stable enzymes [[lipase]]s, [[pullulanase]]s and [[protease]]s), and fermentation products (for example [[ethanol]] is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''[[Thermus aquaticus]]''.<ref>[http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase] [[University of Delaware]], Retrieved on 2008-03-29 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010114505/http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ |date=October 10, 2007 }}</ref>
== Major geyser fields and their distribution ==
[[File:World geyser distribution.gif|alt=Map showing that locations of geysers tend to cluster in specific areas of the world.|300px|thumb|right|Distribution of major geysers in the world.]]
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of [[water]], [[heat]], and fortuitous [[plumbing]]. The combination exists in few places on Earth.<ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995</ref><ref name="uweb">Glennon, J Allan [http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm "World Geyser Fields"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm |date=2007-06-30 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-04</ref>
=== Yellowstone National Park, U.S. ===
{{Main|Yellowstone National Park|List of Yellowstone geothermal features|Geothermal areas of Yellowstone}}
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in [[Wyoming]], USA, with small portions in [[Montana]] and [[Idaho]].<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm "Yellowstone geysers"] nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20</ref> Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser ([[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Norris Geyser Basin]]), as well as the renowned [[Old Faithful Geyser]], [[Beehive Geyser]], [[Giantess Geyser]], [[Lion Geyser]], Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, [[Castle Geyser]], Sawmill Geyser, [[Grand Geyser]], Oblong Geyser, [[Giant Geyser]], [[Daisy Geyser]], [[Grotto Geyser]], the Fan & Mortar Geysers, & the [[Riverside Geyser]], all in the [[Upper Geyser Basin]] which alone contains nearly 180 geysers.<ref name="uweb" />
=== Valley of Geysers, Russia ===
{{Main|Valley of Geysers}}
The Valley of Geysers ("Dolina Geyzerov" in Russian) located in the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] of [[Russia]] is the only geyser field in [[Eurasia]] and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by [[Tatyana Ustinova]] in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous [[volcano|volcanic]] activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.<ref name="uweb" /> On June 3, 2007, a massive [[mudflow]] influenced two thirds of the valley.<ref name="NG">{{cite news | first=Aalok | last=Mehta | title=Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605-geyser-valley.html | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | date=2008-04-16 | accessdate=2007-06-07 }}</ref> It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.<ref>{{cite news |first=Luke |last=Harding |title=Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka’s Valley of Geysers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html |work=[[Guardian Unlimited]] |date=2007-06-05 |accessdate=2008-04-16 }}</ref> Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. [[Velikan Geyser]], one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently{{quantify|date=January 2019}} been observed to be active.<ref>{{cite news|first=Igor |last=Shpilenok|title=June 2007 Special release - The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers |url=http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm|date=2007-06-09|accessdate=2008-04-16|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm |archivedate = April 12, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>
=== El Tatio, Chile ===
[[File:ElTatioMovie.ogg|alt=Video of bubbling geyser, with sound.|thumb|right|A geyser bubbling at [[El Tatio]] geyser field]]
{{Main|El Tatio}}
The name "El Tatio" comes from the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] word for ''oven''. El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the [[Andes]] surrounded by many active volcanoes in [[Chile]], South America at around {{convert|4200|m}} above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only {{convert|6|m|spell=in}} high, but with steam columns that can be over {{convert|20|m}} high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about {{convert|750|mm}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003</ref>
=== Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand ===
{{Main|Taupo Volcanic Zone}}
The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island|White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=417–435 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122075312/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |archivedate=2008-11-22 |df= }}</ref> Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to [[geothermal]] developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the [[Waimangu Geyser]] existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a [[landslide]] changed the local [[water table]]. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach {{convert|160|m}} and some superbursts are known to have reached {{convert|500|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /> Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as {{convert|5|km|mi|spell=in}} thick. Beneath this lies a film of [[magma]] {{convert|50|km|-1}} wide and {{convert|160|km|-1}} long.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html Central North Island sitting on magma film] Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16</ref>
=== Iceland ===
{{Main|Iceland}}
[[File:Geysir Area.jpg|thumb|Geysir Hot Spring Area]]
Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some famous geysers in the world. Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the island. Many of the geysers are located in [[Haukadalur]]. Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. ''[[The Great Geysir]]'', which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word ''[[wiktionary:geyser|geyser]]''. By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby [[Strokkur]] geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some {{convert|30|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Gardner Servian, Solveig [http://website.lineone.net/~polar.publishing/geysersoficeland.htm "Geysers of Iceland"] Retrieved on 2008-04-16</ref>
=== Extinct and dormant geyser fields ===
There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]—[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs, Nevada|Steamboat Springs]]—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.<ref name="uweb" />
Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]].<ref>[http://www.whakarewarewa.com/ "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village"] Retrieved 2008-04-04</ref> Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The Taupo Spa field was lost when the [[Waikato River]] level was deliberately altered in the 1950s.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[Mount Tarawera]] eruption in 1886.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
== Misnamed geysers ==
There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.
=== Artificial geysers ===
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book ''A Guide to Geyser Gazing'' (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".<ref>Jones, Wyoming [http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm "Old Faithful Geyser of California"] ''WyoJones' Geyser Pages'' Retrieved on 2008-03-31</ref>
=== Perpetual spouter ===
This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.<ref>WyoJones [http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm "Thermal Feature Definitions"] ''WyoJones'' Retrieved on 2008-04-03</ref>
== Commercialization ==
[[File:Strokkur, Iceland.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting.|The [[Strokkur|geyser Strokkur]] in Iceland – a tourist spot.]]
Geysers are used for various activities such as [[electricity]] generation, heating and [[tourism]]. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near [[Calistoga, California]] through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/6817678 |title=Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers-Calistoga KGRA |publisher=DOE–SciTech |date=14 July 1980 |accessdate=October 2015}}</ref> The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.<ref>Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA] osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12</ref>
== Cryogeysers ==
{{further|Cryovolcano}}
There are many bodies in the [[Solar System]] where jet-like eruptions, often termed '''cryogeysers''' (''cryo'' meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on [[Earth]], these represent eruptions of [[volatiles]], together with [[Entrainment (physical geography)|entrained]] dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the [[Geyser#Eruptions|physical processes involved]] are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble [[fumarole]]s.
* '''Enceladus'''
: Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[nitrogen]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[silicate]]s), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the "[[Tiger Stripes (Enceladus)|tiger stripes]]" in the south polar region of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]] by the ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by [[Tidal acceleration#Tidal heating|tidal heating]] resulting from [[orbital eccentricity]] due to a 2:1 mean-motion [[orbital resonance]] with the moon [[Dione (moon)|Dione]].<ref name="cold-geyser-model" /><ref name="Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1123013| last1 = Porco| first1 = C. C.| authorlink1 = Carolyn Porco| last2 = Helfenstein| first2 = P.| last3 = Thomas| first3 = P. C.| last4 = Ingersoll| first4 = A. P.| last5 = Wisdom| first5 = J.| last6 = West| first6 = R.| last7 = Neukum| first7 = G.| last8 = Denk| first8 = T.| last9 = Wagner| first9 = R.| date = 10 March 2006| title = Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus| journal = Science| volume = 311| issue = 5766| pages = 1393–1401| pmid = 16527964| pmc = | bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1393P| ref = {{sfnRef|Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006}}}}</ref>
* '''Europa'''
: In December 2013, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] detected [[vapor|water vapor plumes]] above the south polar region of [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of Jupiter's [[Galilean moon]]s. It is thought that Europa's [[lineae]] might be venting this water vapor into space, caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web|last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |work=NASA}}</ref>
* '''Mars'''
: Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the [[Climate of Mars#Polar caps|south polar cap]] of [[Mars]] each spring. Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the [[dry ice]], representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a [[Martian spiders|spider-like pattern of grooves]] created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.<ref name = "THEMIS">{{cite web
| last = Burnham
| first = Robert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars
| work = [[Arizona State University]] web site
| publisher =
| date = 2006-08-16
| url = http://www.asu.edu/news/stories/200608/20060818_marsplumes.htm
| doi =
| accessdate = 2009-08-29}}</ref>
* '''Triton'''
: One of the great surprises of the ''[[Voyager 2]]'' flyby of [[Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of [[Triton (moon)#Cryovolcanism|eruptions]] on its moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.<ref>{{cite web
| date = June 1, 2005
| title = Triton (Voyager)
| publisher = NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission)
| url = http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/neptune_triton.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-03
}}</ref> These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's [[subsolar point]], indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid [[greenhouse effect]]", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. ''Voyager''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.<ref name="harv">Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1990LPI....21..633K&letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=633&epage=633&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf "Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton"] ''[[Harvard University|Harvard]]'' Retrieved 2008-04-08</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = center
|width1 = 160
|width2 = 190
|width3 = 215
|image1 = Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg
|image2 = Fountains of Enceladus PIA07758.jpg
|image3 = Enceladus Cold Geyser Model.svg
|caption1 = Dark streaks deposited by geysers on [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]
|caption2 = Jets thought to be geysers erupting from [[Enceladus]]{{'}} subsurface
|caption3 = The Cold Geyser Model – a proposed explanation for cryovolcanism<ref name="cold-geyser-model">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia07799.html |work=NASA |title=Enceladus "Cold Geyser" Model |date=3 September 2006}}</ref>
}}
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Cold-water geyser}}
* {{annotated link|Earliest known life forms}}
* {{annotated link|Hot spring}}
* {{annotated link|Hydrothermal explosion}}
* {{annotated link|Ice volcano}}
* {{annotated link|Mudpot}}
{{div col end}}
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
== References ==
* Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. {{ISBN|0-87081-365-X}}
* [[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.
* [[Glennon, J.A.]] (2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070902032519/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm About Geysers]'', University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.
* Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790.
* Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
* Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. {{ISBN|0-943972-09-4}}
* Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes — Discovery and basic characterization. ''Science'' 250: 410-415.
* Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) ''Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park'', Publ. 466. Carnegie Institution of Washington, [[Washington, D.C.]], 525 p.
* Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: ''Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland'', Publ. 587. [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], Washington, D.C., 174 p.
* Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) ''Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in earth tidal forces, barometric pressure, and tectonic stresses.'' Jour. Geophys. Res. 77, 342-350.
* Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) ''18.6-year tide regulates geyser activity.'' Science 177, 346-347.
* Rhinehart, J.S. (1980) ''Geysers and Geothermal Energy.'' Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
* Silver, Paul G. and Valette-Silver, Nathalie J. (1992) ''Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes.'' Science 257, 1363-1368.
* White, D.E. (1967) ''Some principles of geyser activity mainly from Steamboat, Nevada. Amer. Jour. Sci. 265, 641-684.
* M.K. Bhat. ''Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology.'' Biotechnology Advances. '''2000''', 18, 355-383.
* Haki, G.D.; Rakshit, S.K. ''Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: a review.'' Bioresource Review. '''2003''', 89, 17-34.
* Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. '''2001''', 65(1), 1-34.
* Schiraldi, C.; De Rosa, M. ''The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles.'' Trends in Biotechnology. '''2002''', 20(12), 515-521.
* Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. ''An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus.'' Applied and Environmental Microbiology. '''1996''', 62(8), 3047-3049.
* Crennell, S.J.; Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Karisson, E.N. ''The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase'', at 1.8Å Resolution. J. Mol. Biol. '''2002''', 320, 883-897.
* Hirvonen, M.; Papageorgiou, A.C. Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanases from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanist Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms. J. Mol. Biol. '''2003''', 329, 403-410.
* Iogen doubles [https://web.archive.org/web/20040903203044/http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html EcoEthanol Capacity]. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, '''2003''').
* Pelach, M.A.; Pastor, F.J.; Puig, J.; Vilaseca, F.; Mutje, P. Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase. Process Biochemistry. '''2003''', 38, 1063-1067.
* Dienes, D.; Egyhazi, A.; Reczey, K. Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases. Industrial Crops and Products. '''2004''', article in press.
* Csiszar, E.; Losonczi, A. Szakacs, G. Rusznak, I.; Bezur, L.; Reicher, J. Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment. Journal of Biotechnology. '''2001''', 89, 271-279.
* Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., ''Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories'' ([[New York City|New York]]: John Wiley & Sons, '''1981'''), 26.
* Harsh K. Gupta, ''Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative'' ([[Amsterdam]]: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, '''1980'''), 186.
* The Earth Explored: ''Geothermal Energy'', 19857 videocassette.
* Brimner, Larry Dane. ''Geysers''. New York: Children's Press, '''2000'''.
* Downs, Sandra. ''Earth's Fiery Fury.'' Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, '''2000'''.
* Gallant, Roy A. ''Geysers: When Earth Roars.'' New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, '''1997'''.
* {{Cite PSM |last=LeConte |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph LeConte |wstitle=Geysers and How They are Explained|month-and-year=February 1878|volume=12 }}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Geyser}}
{{AmCyc Poster|Geysers}}
* [http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]
* [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
* [http://www.geysertimes.org GeyserTimes.org]
* [http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040207004906/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
* [http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]
* [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070416140350/http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
* [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html ''Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems'' by Meg Streepey]
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1 National Geographic]
* {{Cite EB9|wstitle=Geysers|volume=10 |short=x}}
{{Geysers}}
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[[Category:Geysers| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]
[[Category:Springs (hydrology)]]
[[Category:Bodies of water]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{about|volcanic geysers|{{CO2}}-driven geysers|Cold-water geyser|other uses}}
{{short description|Hot spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam}}
{{Infobox landform
| water =
| name = Geyser
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| photo = [[File:Strokkur geyser eru
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[[File:Geyser animation.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A cross-section of a geyser in action]]
A '''geyser''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|aɪ|z|ər}}, {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|g|iː|z|ər}})<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser | title = Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online | accessdate = 2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Oxford Dictionaries|last=|first=|date=|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> is a [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]] characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular [[hydrogeological]] conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active [[volcanic]] areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of [[magma]]. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around {{convert|2000|m|ft}} where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent (a [[hydrothermal explosion]]).
A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing [[mineral]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby [[hot spring]]s, [[earthquake]] influences, and human intervention.<ref>Bryan, T.S. 1995</ref> Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to planet Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as [[#Cryogeysers|cryogeysers]], have been observed on several of the [[Natural satellite|moons]] of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]], while [[nitrogen]] eruptions have been observed on [[Neptune]]'s moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. There are also signs of [[Geysers on Mars|carbon dioxide eruptions]] from the southern polar ice cap of [[Mars]]. In the latter two cases, instead of being driven by geothermal energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state [[greenhouse effect]].
== Etymology ==
The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic ''Geysir'', the name of a parti steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<ref name="wyo" />
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from [[magma]] that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&pg=PA127&dq=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj21vfdw9DUAhUF2mMKHfB9CoQQ6AEIRzAH#v=onepage&q=heat%20for%20geyser%20formation%20comes%20from%20near%20surface%20magma&f=false|title=Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards|last=Erickson|first=Jon|date=2014-05-14|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438109695|language=en}}</ref> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system made of [[fracture]]s, [[fissure]]s, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.<ref name="wyo" />
== Eruptions ==
{| class="infobox" style="width: 300px;"
|-
|
{| style="background: white; white-space: nowrap;" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=2
|-
|[[File:geyser exploding 1 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 2 large.jpg|150px]]
|-
|[[File:geyser exploding 4 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 3 large.jpg|150px]]
|}
|-
|[[Strokkur|Strokkur geyser]] erupting (clockwise from top left)
# Steam rises from heated water
# Pulses of water swell upward
# Surface is broken
# Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe
|}
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by [[magma]]. The [[geothermal (geology)|geothermally]] heated water then rises back toward the surface by [[convection]] through porous and fractured rocks. Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.<ref name="leekry">{{cite web |last=Krystek |first=Lee |url=http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm |title=Weird Geology: Geysers] |publisher=Museum of Unnatural Mystery |accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref>
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, [[Convection|convective cooling]] of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a [[pressure cooker]], allowing the water in the reservoir to become [[superheating|superheated]], i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.<ref name="leekry" />
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins which forces steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into [[steam]], boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.<ref name="wyo" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Lewin |first=Sarah |title = Instant Egghead: How do geysers erupt over and over? |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/instant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over |accessdate=2015-05-17 }}</ref>
A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called [[geyserite]] found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite—mostly [[silicon dioxide]] (SiO<sub>2</sub>), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.<ref name="leekry" />
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; [[Strokkur]] in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while [[Grand Geyser]] in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.<ref name="leekry" />
== General categorization ==
There are two types of geysers: ''fountain geysers'' which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of [[siliceous sinter]] (including [[geyserite]]), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]], perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. [[Grand Geyser]], the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although [[Geysir]] in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |title=Yellowstone thermal features |publisher=Yahoo! |date=2008-04-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116174629/http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |archivedate=November 16, 2007 }}</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = left
|width1 = 202
|width2 = 180
|image1 = Fountain geyser.jpg
|image2 = Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park.jpg
|alt1 = Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool.
|alt2 = High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth.
|footer = [[Fountain Geyser]] erupting from the pool (left) and [[Old Faithful geyser]] (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in [[Yellowstone National Park]] erupts approximately every 91 minutes (right).
}}
There are many volcanic areas in the world that have [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
As a result, most geysers form in places where there is volcanic [[rhyolite]] rock which dissolves in hot water and forms [[mineral]] deposits called siliceous sinter, or [[geyserite]], along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over time, these deposits strengthen the channel walls by cementing the rock together tightly, thus enabling the geyser to persist, as mentioned in the previous section.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by [[geothermal power]] plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of [[surfactant]]s to the water.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
== Biology ==
{{Further|Thermophile|Hyperthermophile}}
[[File:Grand prismatic spring.jpg|alt=Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground.|thumb|300px|Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park]]
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]]) in the form of [[thermophiles|thermophilic]] [[prokaryote]]s. No known [[eukaryote]] can survive over {{convert|60|°C|°F|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="bot">Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171-185</ref>
In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around {{convert|73|°C|°F|adj=mid|maximum}}—the upper limit for the survival of [[cyanobacteria]], as the structure of key cellular [[protein]]s and [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around {{convert|55|°C|°F|adj=mid|average|0}}.<ref name="bot" />
However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of [[water (molecule)|water]]. Dozens of such bacteria are known.<ref>Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; [http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf Extremophiles] atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01</ref>
[[Thermophile]]s prefer temperatures from {{convert|50|to|70|°C|°F|0}}, whilst [[hyperthermophile]]s grow better at temperatures as high as {{convert|80|to|110|°C|°F|0}}. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable [[tool]]s, that are important in [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]],<ref>Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, '''65(1)''', 1-34.</ref> for example in manufacturing [[antibiotic]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[detergent]]s (by the use of heat-stable enzymes [[lipase]]s, [[pullulanase]]s and [[protease]]s), and fermentation products (for example [[ethanol]] is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''[[Thermus aquaticus]]''.<ref>[http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase] [[University of Delaware]], Retrieved on 2008-03-29 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010114505/http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ |date=October 10, 2007 }}</ref>
== Major geyser fields and their distribution ==
[[File:World geyser distribution.gif|alt=Map showing that locations of geysers tend to cluster in specific areas of the world.|300px|thumb|right|Distribution of major geysers in the world.]]
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of [[water]], [[heat]], and fortuitous [[plumbing]]. The combination exists in few places on Earth.<ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995</ref><ref name="uweb">Glennon, J Allan [http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm "World Geyser Fields"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm |date=2007-06-30 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-04</ref>
=== Yellowstone National Park, U.S. ===
{{Main|Yellowstone National Park|List of Yellowstone geothermal features|Geothermal areas of Yellowstone}}
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in [[Wyoming]], USA, with small portions in [[Montana]] and [[Idaho]].<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm "Yellowstone geysers"] nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20</ref> Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser ([[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Norris Geyser Basin]]), as well as the renowned [[Old Faithful Geyser]], [[Beehive Geyser]], [[Giantess Geyser]], [[Lion Geyser]], Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, [[Castle Geyser]], Sawmill Geyser, [[Grand Geyser]], Oblong Geyser, [[Giant Geyser]], [[Daisy Geyser]], [[Grotto Geyser]], the Fan & Mortar Geysers, & the [[Riverside Geyser]], all in the [[Upper Geyser Basin]] which alone contains nearly 180 geysers.<ref name="uweb" />
=== Valley of Geysers, Russia ===
{{Main|Valley of Geysers}}
The Valley of Geysers ("Dolina Geyzerov" in Russian) located in the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] of [[Russia]] is the only geyser field in [[Eurasia]] and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by [[Tatyana Ustinova]] in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous [[volcano|volcanic]] activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.<ref name="uweb" /> On June 3, 2007, a massive [[mudflow]] influenced two thirds of the valley.<ref name="NG">{{cite news | first=Aalok | last=Mehta | title=Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605-geyser-valley.html | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | date=2008-04-16 | accessdate=2007-06-07 }}</ref> It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.<ref>{{cite news |first=Luke |last=Harding |title=Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka’s Valley of Geysers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html |work=[[Guardian Unlimited]] |date=2007-06-05 |accessdate=2008-04-16 }}</ref> Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. [[Velikan Geyser]], one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently{{quantify|date=January 2019}} been observed to be active.<ref>{{cite news|first=Igor |last=Shpilenok|title=June 2007 Special release - The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers |url=http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm|date=2007-06-09|accessdate=2008-04-16|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm |archivedate = April 12, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>
=== El Tatio, Chile ===
[[File:ElTatioMovie.ogg|alt=Video of bubbling geyser, with sound.|thumb|right|A geyser bubbling at [[El Tatio]] geyser field]]
{{Main|El Tatio}}
The name "El Tatio" comes from the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] word for ''oven''. El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the [[Andes]] surrounded by many active volcanoes in [[Chile]], South America at around {{convert|4200|m}} above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only {{convert|6|m|spell=in}} high, but with steam columns that can be over {{convert|20|m}} high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about {{convert|750|mm}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003</ref>
=== Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand ===
{{Main|Taupo Volcanic Zone}}
The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island|White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-
LOL
rcenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
* [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html ''Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems'' by Meg Streepey]
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1 National Geographic]
* {{Cite EB9|wstitle=Geysers|volume=10 |short=x}}
{{Geysers}}
{{Good article}}
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[[Category:Geysers| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]
[[Category:Springs (hydrology)]]
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== Etymology ==
-The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic ''Geysir'', the name of a particular spring in Iceland. It is related to the Icelandic word ''geysa'' ‘to gush’.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Lexico Dictionaries|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref>
-
-== Form and function ==
-[[File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone.jpg|alt=Water and steam erupting from rocky, barren ground. Fir trees in the background.|[[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb|250px]]
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-Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.<ref name="wyo">[http://www.wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm How geysers form] Gregory L.</ref> As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<ref name="wyo" />
+The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic ''Geysir'', the name of a parti steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<ref name="wyo" />
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from [[magma]] that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&pg=PA127&dq=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj21vfdw9DUAhUF2mMKHfB9CoQQ6AEIRzAH#v=onepage&q=heat%20for%20geyser%20formation%20comes%20from%20near%20surface%20magma&f=false|title=Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards|last=Erickson|first=Jon|date=2014-05-14|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438109695|language=en}}</ref> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system made of [[fracture]]s, [[fissure]]s, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.<ref name="wyo" />
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{{Main|Taupo Volcanic Zone}}
-The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island|White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=417–435 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122075312/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |archivedate=2008-11-22 |df= }}</ref> Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to [[geothermal]] developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the [[Waimangu Geyser]] existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a [[landslide]] changed the local [[water table]]. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach {{convert|160|m}} and some superbursts are known to have reached {{convert|500|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /> Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as {{convert|5|km|mi|spell=in}} thick. Beneath this lies a film of [[magma]] {{convert|50|km|-1}} wide and {{convert|160|km|-1}} long.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html Central North Island sitting on magma film] Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16</ref>
+The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island|White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-
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-=== Iceland ===
-{{Main|Iceland}}
-[[File:Geysir Area.jpg|thumb|Geysir Hot Spring Area]]
-Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some famous geysers in the world. Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the island. Many of the geysers are located in [[Haukadalur]]. Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. ''[[The Great Geysir]]'', which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word ''[[wiktionary:geyser|geyser]]''. By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby [[Strokkur]] geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some {{convert|30|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Gardner Servian, Solveig [http://website.lineone.net/~polar.publishing/geysersoficeland.htm "Geysers of Iceland"] Retrieved on 2008-04-16</ref>
-=== Extinct and dormant geyser fields ===
-There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]—[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs, Nevada|Steamboat Springs]]—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.<ref name="uweb" />
-Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]].<ref>[http://www.whakarewarewa.com/ "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village"] Retrieved 2008-04-04</ref> Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The Taupo Spa field was lost when the [[Waikato River]] level was deliberately altered in the 1950s.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[Mount Tarawera]] eruption in 1886.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
-== Misnamed geysers ==
-There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.
-=== Artificial geysers ===
-In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book ''A Guide to Geyser Gazing'' (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".<ref>Jones, Wyoming [http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm "Old Faithful Geyser of California"] ''WyoJones' Geyser Pages'' Retrieved on 2008-03-31</ref>
-=== Perpetual spouter ===
-This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.<ref>WyoJones [http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm "Thermal Feature Definitions"] ''WyoJones'' Retrieved on 2008-04-03</ref>
-== Commercialization ==
-[[File:Strokkur, Iceland.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting.|The [[Strokkur|geyser Strokkur]] in Iceland – a tourist spot.]]
-Geysers are used for various activities such as [[electricity]] generation, heating and [[tourism]]. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near [[Calistoga, California]] through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/6817678 |title=Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers-Calistoga KGRA |publisher=DOE–SciTech |date=14 July 1980 |accessdate=October 2015}}</ref> The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.<ref>Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA] osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12</ref>
-== Cryogeysers ==
-{{further|Cryovolcano}}
-There are many bodies in the [[Solar System]] where jet-like eruptions, often termed '''cryogeysers''' (''cryo'' meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on [[Earth]], these represent eruptions of [[volatiles]], together with [[Entrainment (physical geography)|entrained]] dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the [[Geyser#Eruptions|physical processes involved]] are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble [[fumarole]]s.
-* '''Enceladus'''
-: Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[nitrogen]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[silicate]]s), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the "[[Tiger Stripes (Enceladus)|tiger stripes]]" in the south polar region of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]] by the ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by [[Tidal acceleration#Tidal heating|tidal heating]] resulting from [[orbital eccentricity]] due to a 2:1 mean-motion [[orbital resonance]] with the moon [[Dione (moon)|Dione]].<ref name="cold-geyser-model" /><ref name="Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1123013| last1 = Porco| first1 = C. C.| authorlink1 = Carolyn Porco| last2 = Helfenstein| first2 = P.| last3 = Thomas| first3 = P. C.| last4 = Ingersoll| first4 = A. P.| last5 = Wisdom| first5 = J.| last6 = West| first6 = R.| last7 = Neukum| first7 = G.| last8 = Denk| first8 = T.| last9 = Wagner| first9 = R.| date = 10 March 2006| title = Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus| journal = Science| volume = 311| issue = 5766| pages = 1393–1401| pmid = 16527964| pmc = | bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1393P| ref = {{sfnRef|Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006}}}}</ref>
-* '''Europa'''
-: In December 2013, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] detected [[vapor|water vapor plumes]] above the south polar region of [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of Jupiter's [[Galilean moon]]s. It is thought that Europa's [[lineae]] might be venting this water vapor into space, caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web|last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |work=NASA}}</ref>
-* '''Mars'''
-: Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the [[Climate of Mars#Polar caps|south polar cap]] of [[Mars]] each spring. Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the [[dry ice]], representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a [[Martian spiders|spider-like pattern of grooves]] created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.<ref name = "THEMIS">{{cite web
- | last = Burnham
- | first = Robert
- | authorlink =
- | coauthors =
- | title = Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars
- | work = [[Arizona State University]] web site
- | publisher =
- | date = 2006-08-16
- | url = http://www.asu.edu/news/stories/200608/20060818_marsplumes.htm
- | doi =
- | accessdate = 2009-08-29}}</ref>
-* '''Triton'''
-: One of the great surprises of the ''[[Voyager 2]]'' flyby of [[Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of [[Triton (moon)#Cryovolcanism|eruptions]] on its moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.<ref>{{cite web
- | date = June 1, 2005
- | title = Triton (Voyager)
- | publisher = NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission)
- | url = http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/neptune_triton.html
- | accessdate = 2008-04-03
-}}</ref> These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's [[subsolar point]], indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid [[greenhouse effect]]", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. ''Voyager''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.<ref name="harv">Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1990LPI....21..633K&letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=633&epage=633&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf "Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton"] ''[[Harvard University|Harvard]]'' Retrieved 2008-04-08</ref>
-{{multiple image
- |direction = horizontal
- |align = center
- |width1 = 160
- |width2 = 190
- |width3 = 215
- |image1 = Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg
- |image2 = Fountains of Enceladus PIA07758.jpg
- |image3 = Enceladus Cold Geyser Model.svg
- |caption1 = Dark streaks deposited by geysers on [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]
- |caption2 = Jets thought to be geysers erupting from [[Enceladus]]{{'}} subsurface
- |caption3 = The Cold Geyser Model – a proposed explanation for cryovolcanism<ref name="cold-geyser-model">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia07799.html |work=NASA |title=Enceladus "Cold Geyser" Model |date=3 September 2006}}</ref>
-}}
-{{clear}}
-== See also ==
-{{div col}}
-* {{annotated link|Cold-water geyser}}
-* {{annotated link|Earliest known life forms}}
-* {{annotated link|Hot spring}}
-* {{annotated link|Hydrothermal explosion}}
-* {{annotated link|Ice volcano}}
-* {{annotated link|Mudpot}}
-{{div col end}}
-== Notes ==
-{{Reflist}}
-== References ==
-* Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. {{ISBN|0-87081-365-X}}
-* [[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.
-* [[Glennon, J.A.]] (2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070902032519/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm About Geysers]'', University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.
-* Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790.
-* Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
-* Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. {{ISBN|0-943972-09-4}}
-* Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes — Discovery and basic characterization. ''Science'' 250: 410-415.
-* Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) ''Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park'', Publ. 466. Carnegie Institution of Washington, [[Washington, D.C.]], 525 p.
-* Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: ''Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland'', Publ. 587. [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], Washington, D.C., 174 p.
-* Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) ''Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in earth tidal forces, barometric pressure, and tectonic stresses.'' Jour. Geophys. Res. 77, 342-350.
-* Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) ''18.6-year tide regulates geyser activity.'' Science 177, 346-347.
-* Rhinehart, J.S. (1980) ''Geysers and Geothermal Energy.'' Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
-* Silver, Paul G. and Valette-Silver, Nathalie J. (1992) ''Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes.'' Science 257, 1363-1368.
-* White, D.E. (1967) ''Some principles of geyser activity mainly from Steamboat, Nevada. Amer. Jour. Sci. 265, 641-684.
-* M.K. Bhat. ''Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology.'' Biotechnology Advances. '''2000''', 18, 355-383.
-* Haki, G.D.; Rakshit, S.K. ''Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: a review.'' Bioresource Review. '''2003''', 89, 17-34.
-* Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. '''2001''', 65(1), 1-34.
-* Schiraldi, C.; De Rosa, M. ''The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles.'' Trends in Biotechnology. '''2002''', 20(12), 515-521.
-* Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. ''An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus.'' Applied and Environmental Microbiology. '''1996''', 62(8), 3047-3049.
-* Crennell, S.J.; Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Karisson, E.N. ''The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase'', at 1.8Å Resolution. J. Mol. Biol. '''2002''', 320, 883-897.
-* Hirvonen, M.; Papageorgiou, A.C. Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanases from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanist Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms. J. Mol. Biol. '''2003''', 329, 403-410.
-* Iogen doubles [https://web.archive.org/web/20040903203044/http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html EcoEthanol Capacity]. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, '''2003''').
-* Pelach, M.A.; Pastor, F.J.; Puig, J.; Vilaseca, F.; Mutje, P. Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase. Process Biochemistry. '''2003''', 38, 1063-1067.
-* Dienes, D.; Egyhazi, A.; Reczey, K. Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases. Industrial Crops and Products. '''2004''', article in press.
-* Csiszar, E.; Losonczi, A. Szakacs, G. Rusznak, I.; Bezur, L.; Reicher, J. Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment. Journal of Biotechnology. '''2001''', 89, 271-279.
-* Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., ''Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories'' ([[New York City|New York]]: John Wiley & Sons, '''1981'''), 26.
-* Harsh K. Gupta, ''Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative'' ([[Amsterdam]]: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, '''1980'''), 186.
-* The Earth Explored: ''Geothermal Energy'', 19857 videocassette.
-* Brimner, Larry Dane. ''Geysers''. New York: Children's Press, '''2000'''.
-* Downs, Sandra. ''Earth's Fiery Fury.'' Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, '''2000'''.
-* Gallant, Roy A. ''Geysers: When Earth Roars.'' New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, '''1997'''.
-* {{Cite PSM |last=LeConte |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph LeConte |wstitle=Geysers and How They are Explained|month-and-year=February 1878|volume=12 }}
-== External links ==
-{{Commons|Geyser}}
-{{AmCyc Poster|Geysers}}
-* [http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]
-* [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
-* [http://www.geysertimes.org GeyserTimes.org]
-* [http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040207004906/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
-* [http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]
-* [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070416140350/http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
+rcenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
* [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html ''Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems'' by Meg Streepey]
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1 National Geographic]
' |
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1 => 'The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic ''Geysir'', the name of a parti steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<ref name="wyo" />',
2 => 'The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island|White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-',
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3 => '| photo_caption = [[Strokkur]] geyser, [[Iceland]]',
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31 => 'The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic ''Geysir'', the name of a particular spring in Iceland. It is related to the Icelandic word ''geysa'' ‘to gush’.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Lexico Dictionaries|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref>',
32 => false,
33 => '== Form and function ==',
34 => '[[File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone.jpg|alt=Water and steam erupting from rocky, barren ground. Fir trees in the background.|[[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb|250px]]',
35 => false,
36 => 'Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.<ref name="wyo">[http://www.wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm How geysers form] Gregory L.</ref> As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<ref name="wyo" />',
37 => 'The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island|White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=417–435 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122075312/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |archivedate=2008-11-22 |df= }}</ref> Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to [[geothermal]] developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the [[Waimangu Geyser]] existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a [[landslide]] changed the local [[water table]]. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach {{convert|160|m}} and some superbursts are known to have reached {{convert|500|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /> Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as {{convert|5|km|mi|spell=in}} thick. Beneath this lies a film of [[magma]] {{convert|50|km|-1}} wide and {{convert|160|km|-1}} long.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html Central North Island sitting on magma film] Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16</ref>',
38 => '=== Iceland ===',
39 => '{{Main|Iceland}}',
40 => '[[File:Geysir Area.jpg|thumb|Geysir Hot Spring Area]]',
41 => 'Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some famous geysers in the world. Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the island. Many of the geysers are located in [[Haukadalur]]. Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. ''[[The Great Geysir]]'', which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word ''[[wiktionary:geyser|geyser]]''. By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby [[Strokkur]] geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some {{convert|30|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Gardner Servian, Solveig [http://website.lineone.net/~polar.publishing/geysersoficeland.htm "Geysers of Iceland"] Retrieved on 2008-04-16</ref>',
42 => '=== Extinct and dormant geyser fields ===',
43 => 'There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]—[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs, Nevada|Steamboat Springs]]—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.<ref name="uweb" />',
44 => 'Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]].<ref>[http://www.whakarewarewa.com/ "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village"] Retrieved 2008-04-04</ref> Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The Taupo Spa field was lost when the [[Waikato River]] level was deliberately altered in the 1950s.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[Mount Tarawera]] eruption in 1886.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}',
45 => '== Misnamed geysers ==',
46 => 'There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.',
47 => '=== Artificial geysers ===',
48 => 'In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book ''A Guide to Geyser Gazing'' (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".<ref>Jones, Wyoming [http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm "Old Faithful Geyser of California"] ''WyoJones' Geyser Pages'' Retrieved on 2008-03-31</ref>',
49 => '=== Perpetual spouter ===',
50 => 'This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.<ref>WyoJones [http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm "Thermal Feature Definitions"] ''WyoJones'' Retrieved on 2008-04-03</ref>',
51 => '== Commercialization ==',
52 => '[[File:Strokkur, Iceland.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting.|The [[Strokkur|geyser Strokkur]] in Iceland – a tourist spot.]]',
53 => 'Geysers are used for various activities such as [[electricity]] generation, heating and [[tourism]]. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near [[Calistoga, California]] through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/6817678 |title=Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers-Calistoga KGRA |publisher=DOE–SciTech |date=14 July 1980 |accessdate=October 2015}}</ref> The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.<ref>Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA] osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12</ref>',
54 => '== Cryogeysers ==',
55 => '{{further|Cryovolcano}}',
56 => 'There are many bodies in the [[Solar System]] where jet-like eruptions, often termed '''cryogeysers''' (''cryo'' meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on [[Earth]], these represent eruptions of [[volatiles]], together with [[Entrainment (physical geography)|entrained]] dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the [[Geyser#Eruptions|physical processes involved]] are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble [[fumarole]]s.',
57 => '* '''Enceladus'''',
58 => ': Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[nitrogen]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[silicate]]s), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the "[[Tiger Stripes (Enceladus)|tiger stripes]]" in the south polar region of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]] by the ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by [[Tidal acceleration#Tidal heating|tidal heating]] resulting from [[orbital eccentricity]] due to a 2:1 mean-motion [[orbital resonance]] with the moon [[Dione (moon)|Dione]].<ref name="cold-geyser-model" /><ref name="Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1123013| last1 = Porco| first1 = C. C.| authorlink1 = Carolyn Porco| last2 = Helfenstein| first2 = P.| last3 = Thomas| first3 = P. C.| last4 = Ingersoll| first4 = A. P.| last5 = Wisdom| first5 = J.| last6 = West| first6 = R.| last7 = Neukum| first7 = G.| last8 = Denk| first8 = T.| last9 = Wagner| first9 = R.| date = 10 March 2006| title = Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus| journal = Science| volume = 311| issue = 5766| pages = 1393–1401| pmid = 16527964| pmc = | bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1393P| ref = {{sfnRef|Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006}}}}</ref>',
59 => '* '''Europa'''',
60 => ': In December 2013, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] detected [[vapor|water vapor plumes]] above the south polar region of [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of Jupiter's [[Galilean moon]]s. It is thought that Europa's [[lineae]] might be venting this water vapor into space, caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web|last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |work=NASA}}</ref>',
61 => '* '''Mars'''',
62 => ': Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the [[Climate of Mars#Polar caps|south polar cap]] of [[Mars]] each spring. Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the [[dry ice]], representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a [[Martian spiders|spider-like pattern of grooves]] created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.<ref name = "THEMIS">{{cite web',
63 => ' | last = Burnham',
64 => ' | first = Robert',
65 => ' | authorlink = ',
66 => ' | coauthors = ',
67 => ' | title = Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars',
68 => ' | work = [[Arizona State University]] web site',
69 => ' | publisher = ',
70 => ' | date = 2006-08-16',
71 => ' | url = http://www.asu.edu/news/stories/200608/20060818_marsplumes.htm',
72 => ' | doi = ',
73 => ' | accessdate = 2009-08-29}}</ref>',
74 => '* '''Triton'''',
75 => ': One of the great surprises of the ''[[Voyager 2]]'' flyby of [[Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of [[Triton (moon)#Cryovolcanism|eruptions]] on its moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.<ref>{{cite web',
76 => ' | date = June 1, 2005',
77 => ' | title = Triton (Voyager)',
78 => ' | publisher = NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission)',
79 => ' | url = http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/neptune_triton.html',
80 => ' | accessdate = 2008-04-03',
81 => '}}</ref> These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's [[subsolar point]], indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid [[greenhouse effect]]", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. ''Voyager''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.<ref name="harv">Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1990LPI....21..633K&letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=633&epage=633&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf "Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton"] ''[[Harvard University|Harvard]]'' Retrieved 2008-04-08</ref>',
82 => '{{multiple image',
83 => ' |direction = horizontal',
84 => ' |align = center',
85 => ' |width1 = 160',
86 => ' |width2 = 190',
87 => ' |width3 = 215',
88 => ' |image1 = Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg',
89 => ' |image2 = Fountains of Enceladus PIA07758.jpg',
90 => ' |image3 = Enceladus Cold Geyser Model.svg',
91 => ' |caption1 = Dark streaks deposited by geysers on [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]',
92 => ' |caption2 = Jets thought to be geysers erupting from [[Enceladus]]{{'}} subsurface',
93 => ' |caption3 = The Cold Geyser Model – a proposed explanation for cryovolcanism<ref name="cold-geyser-model">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia07799.html |work=NASA |title=Enceladus "Cold Geyser" Model |date=3 September 2006}}</ref>',
94 => '}}',
95 => '{{clear}}',
96 => '== See also ==',
97 => '{{div col}}',
98 => '* {{annotated link|Cold-water geyser}}',
99 => '* {{annotated link|Earliest known life forms}}',
100 => '* {{annotated link|Hot spring}}',
101 => '* {{annotated link|Hydrothermal explosion}}',
102 => '* {{annotated link|Ice volcano}}',
103 => '* {{annotated link|Mudpot}}',
104 => '{{div col end}}',
105 => '== Notes ==',
106 => '{{Reflist}}',
107 => '== References ==',
108 => '* Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. {{ISBN|0-87081-365-X}}',
109 => '* [[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.',
110 => '* [[Glennon, J.A.]] (2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070902032519/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm About Geysers]'', University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.',
111 => '* Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790.',
112 => '* Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.',
113 => '* Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. {{ISBN|0-943972-09-4}}',
114 => '* Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes — Discovery and basic characterization. ''Science'' 250: 410-415.',
115 => '* Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) ''Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park'', Publ. 466. Carnegie Institution of Washington, [[Washington, D.C.]], 525 p.',
116 => '* Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: ''Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland'', Publ. 587. [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], Washington, D.C., 174 p.',
117 => '* Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) ''Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in earth tidal forces, barometric pressure, and tectonic stresses.'' Jour. Geophys. Res. 77, 342-350.',
118 => '* Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) ''18.6-year tide regulates geyser activity.'' Science 177, 346-347.',
119 => '* Rhinehart, J.S. (1980) ''Geysers and Geothermal Energy.'' Springer-Verlag, 223 p.',
120 => '* Silver, Paul G. and Valette-Silver, Nathalie J. (1992) ''Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes.'' Science 257, 1363-1368.',
121 => '* White, D.E. (1967) ''Some principles of geyser activity mainly from Steamboat, Nevada. Amer. Jour. Sci. 265, 641-684.',
122 => '* M.K. Bhat. ''Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology.'' Biotechnology Advances. '''2000''', 18, 355-383.',
123 => '* Haki, G.D.; Rakshit, S.K. ''Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: a review.'' Bioresource Review. '''2003''', 89, 17-34.',
124 => '* Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. '''2001''', 65(1), 1-34.',
125 => '* Schiraldi, C.; De Rosa, M. ''The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles.'' Trends in Biotechnology. '''2002''', 20(12), 515-521.',
126 => '* Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. ''An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus.'' Applied and Environmental Microbiology. '''1996''', 62(8), 3047-3049.',
127 => '* Crennell, S.J.; Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Karisson, E.N. ''The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase'', at 1.8Å Resolution. J. Mol. Biol. '''2002''', 320, 883-897.',
128 => '* Hirvonen, M.; Papageorgiou, A.C. Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanases from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanist Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms. J. Mol. Biol. '''2003''', 329, 403-410.',
129 => '* Iogen doubles [https://web.archive.org/web/20040903203044/http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html EcoEthanol Capacity]. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, '''2003''').',
130 => '* Pelach, M.A.; Pastor, F.J.; Puig, J.; Vilaseca, F.; Mutje, P. Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase. Process Biochemistry. '''2003''', 38, 1063-1067.',
131 => '* Dienes, D.; Egyhazi, A.; Reczey, K. Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases. Industrial Crops and Products. '''2004''', article in press.',
132 => '* Csiszar, E.; Losonczi, A. Szakacs, G. Rusznak, I.; Bezur, L.; Reicher, J. Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment. Journal of Biotechnology. '''2001''', 89, 271-279.',
133 => '* Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., ''Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories'' ([[New York City|New York]]: John Wiley & Sons, '''1981'''), 26.',
134 => '* Harsh K. Gupta, ''Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative'' ([[Amsterdam]]: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, '''1980'''), 186.',
135 => '* The Earth Explored: ''Geothermal Energy'', 19857 videocassette.',
136 => '* Brimner, Larry Dane. ''Geysers''. New York: Children's Press, '''2000'''.',
137 => '* Downs, Sandra. ''Earth's Fiery Fury.'' Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, '''2000'''.',
138 => '* Gallant, Roy A. ''Geysers: When Earth Roars.'' New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, '''1997'''.',
139 => '* {{Cite PSM |last=LeConte |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph LeConte |wstitle=Geysers and How They are Explained|month-and-year=February 1878|volume=12 }}',
140 => '== External links ==',
141 => '{{Commons|Geyser}}',
142 => '{{AmCyc Poster|Geysers}}',
143 => '* [http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]',
144 => '* [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]',
145 => '* [http://www.geysertimes.org GeyserTimes.org]',
146 => '* [http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]',
147 => '* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040207004906/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]',
148 => '* [http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]',
149 => '* [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']',
150 => '* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070416140350/http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]'
] |
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about volcanic geysers. For <span class="nowrap">CO<span style="display:inline-block; margin-bottom:-0.3em; vertical-align:-0.4em; line-height:1.2em; font-size:70%; text-align:left;"><br />2</span></span>-driven geysers, see <a href="/wiki/Cold-water_geyser" title="Cold-water geyser">Cold-water geyser</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Geyser_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Geyser (disambiguation)">Geyser (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hot spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam</div>
<p>{{Infobox landform
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| name = Geyser
| other_name =
| photo = [[File:Strokkur geyser eru
| area =
| depth =
| drop =
| formed_by = Particular hydrogeological conditions that exist in a few places on Earth
| geology =
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| orogeny =
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| volcanic_arc =
| volcanic_belt =
| volcanic_field =
| eruption =
| last_eruption =
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</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:332px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_animation.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geyser_animation.gif/330px-Geyser_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="360" class="thumbimage" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geyser_animation.gif/495px-Geyser_animation.gif 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Geyser_animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="650" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_animation.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A cross-section of a geyser in action</div></div></div>
<p>A <b>geyser</b> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="nowrap"><small><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </small><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">spring</a> characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogeological">hydrogeological</a> conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent (a <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_explosion" title="Hydrothermal explosion">hydrothermal explosion</a>).
</p><p>A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposition</a> within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> influences, and human intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to planet Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as <a href="#Cryogeysers">cryogeysers</a>, have been observed on several of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a> of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> eruptions have been observed on <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a>. There are also signs of <a href="/wiki/Geysers_on_Mars" title="Geysers on Mars">carbon dioxide eruptions</a> from the southern polar ice cap of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. In the latter two cases, instead of being driven by geothermal energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Eruptions"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Eruptions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#General_categorization"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">General categorization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Biology"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Biology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Major_geyser_fields_and_their_distribution"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Major geyser fields and their distribution</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Yellowstone_National_Park,_U.S."><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Yellowstone National Park, U.S.</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Valley_of_Geysers,_Russia"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Valley of Geysers, Russia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#El_Tatio,_Chile"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">El Tatio, Chile</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Taupo_Volcanic_Zone,_New_Zealand"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The term 'geyser' dates in English to the late 18th century originating from Icelandic <i>Geysir</i>, the name of a parti steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The heat needed for geyser formation comes from <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system made of <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">fractures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fissure" title="Fissure">fissures</a>, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Eruptions">Eruptions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Eruptions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 300px;">
<tbody><tr>
<td>
<table style="background: white; white-space: nowrap;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2">
<tbody><tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Geyser exploding 1 large.jpg" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Geyser exploding 2 large.jpg" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="614" /></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Geyser exploding 4 large.jpg" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="614" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Geyser exploding 3 large.jpg" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="614" /></a>
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<td><a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur geyser</a> erupting (clockwise from top left)
<ol><li>Steam rises from heated water</li>
<li>Pulses of water swell upward</li>
<li>Surface is broken</li>
<li>Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe</li></ol>
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<p>Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal (geology)">geothermally</a> heated water then rises back toward the surface by <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> through porous and fractured rocks. Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convective cooling</a> of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a <a href="/wiki/Pressure_cooker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure cooker">pressure cooker</a>, allowing the water in the reservoir to become <a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">superheated</a>, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins which forces steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>, boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called <a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">geyserite</a> found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite—mostly <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a> (SiO<sub>2</sub>), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; <a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a> in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while <a href="/wiki/Grand_Geyser" title="Grand Geyser">Grand Geyser</a> in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="General_categorization">General categorization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: General categorization">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There are two types of geysers: <i>fountain geysers</i> which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and <i>cone geysers</i> which erupt from cones or mounds of <a href="/wiki/Siliceous_sinter" class="mw-redirect" title="Siliceous sinter">siliceous sinter</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">geyserite</a>), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. <a href="/wiki/Old_Faithful_Geyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Faithful Geyser">Old Faithful</a>, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Geyser" title="Grand Geyser">Grand Geyser</a>, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although <a href="/wiki/Geysir" title="Geysir">Geysir</a> in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r889293853/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:left;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fountain_geyser.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fountain_geyser.jpg/202px-Fountain_geyser.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="134" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fountain_geyser.jpg/303px-Fountain_geyser.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fountain_geyser.jpg/404px-Fountain_geyser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1329" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg" class="image"><img alt="High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg/180px-Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg/270px-Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg/360px-Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2580" data-file-height="1932" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left;background-color:transparent"><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Geyser" title="Fountain Geyser">Fountain Geyser</a> erupting from the pool (left) and <a href="/wiki/Old_Faithful_geyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Faithful geyser">Old Faithful geyser</a> (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> erupts approximately every 91 minutes (right).</div></div></div></div>
<p>There are many volcanic areas in the world that have <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mud_pot" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud pot">mud pots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumaroles</a>, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>As a result, most geysers form in places where there is volcanic <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a> rock which dissolves in hot water and forms <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> deposits called siliceous sinter, or <a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">geyserite</a>, along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over time, these deposits strengthen the channel walls by cementing the rock together tightly, thus enabling the geyser to persist, as mentioned in the previous section.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power</a> plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactants</a> to the water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Biology">Biology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">Hyperthermophile</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg/300px-Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="192" class="thumbimage" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg/450px-Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg/600px-Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1277" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prismatic_Spring" title="Grand Prismatic Spring">Grand Prismatic Spring</a>, Yellowstone National Park</div></div></div>
<p>The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitats</a>) in the form of <a href="/wiki/Thermophiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophiles">thermophilic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. No known <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryote</a> can survive over 60 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (140 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-bot_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bot-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C maximum (163 °F)—the upper limit for the survival of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, as the structure of key cellular <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C average (131 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-bot_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bot-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">water</a>. Dozens of such bacteria are known.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
<a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophiles</a> prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C (122 to 158 °F), whilst <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">hyperthermophiles</a> grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C (176 to 230 °F). As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a>, that are important in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> for example in manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergents</a> (by the use of heat-stable enzymes <a href="/wiki/Lipase" title="Lipase">lipases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pullulanase" title="Pullulanase">pullulanases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a>), and fermentation products (for example <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is <i><a href="/wiki/Thermus_aquaticus" title="Thermus aquaticus">Thermus aquaticus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_geyser_fields_and_their_distribution">Major geyser fields and their distribution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Major geyser fields and their distribution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:World_geyser_distribution.gif" class="image"><img alt="Map showing that locations of geysers tend to cluster in specific areas of the world." src="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/World_geyser_distribution.gif/300px-World_geyser_distribution.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/World_geyser_distribution.gif/450px-World_geyser_distribution.gif 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/World_geyser_distribution.gif/600px-World_geyser_distribution.gif 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="762" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:World_geyser_distribution.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Distribution of major geysers in the world.</div></div></div>
<p>Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>, and fortuitous <a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a>. The combination exists in few places on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uweb_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-14">[14]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Yellowstone_National_Park.2C_U.S."></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Yellowstone_National_Park,_U.S.">Yellowstone National Park, U.S.</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Yellowstone National Park, U.S.">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Yellowstone_geothermal_features" title="List of Yellowstone geothermal features">List of Yellowstone geothermal features</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_areas_of_Yellowstone" title="Geothermal areas of Yellowstone">Geothermal areas of Yellowstone</a></div>
<p>Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>, USA, with small portions in <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser (<a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Geyser" title="Steamboat Geyser">Steamboat Geyser</a> in <a href="/wiki/Norris_Geyser_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Norris Geyser Basin">Norris Geyser Basin</a>), as well as the renowned <a href="/wiki/Old_Faithful_Geyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Faithful Geyser">Old Faithful Geyser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beehive_Geyser" title="Beehive Geyser">Beehive Geyser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giantess_Geyser" title="Giantess Geyser">Giantess Geyser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lion_Geyser" title="Lion Geyser">Lion Geyser</a>, Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, <a href="/wiki/Castle_Geyser" title="Castle Geyser">Castle Geyser</a>, Sawmill Geyser, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Geyser" title="Grand Geyser">Grand Geyser</a>, Oblong Geyser, <a href="/wiki/Giant_Geyser" title="Giant Geyser">Giant Geyser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daisy_Geyser" title="Daisy Geyser">Daisy Geyser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grotto_Geyser" title="Grotto Geyser">Grotto Geyser</a>, the Fan & Mortar Geysers, & the <a href="/wiki/Riverside_Geyser" title="Riverside Geyser">Riverside Geyser</a>, all in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Geyser_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Geyser Basin">Upper Geyser Basin</a> which alone contains nearly 180 geysers.<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-14">[14]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Valley_of_Geysers.2C_Russia"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Valley_of_Geysers,_Russia">Valley of Geysers, Russia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Valley of Geysers, Russia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Geysers" title="Valley of Geysers">Valley of Geysers</a></div>
<p>The Valley of Geysers ("Dolina Geyzerov" in Russian) located in the <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula" title="Kamchatka Peninsula">Kamchatka Peninsula</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> is the only geyser field in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by <a href="/wiki/Tatyana_Ustinova" title="Tatyana Ustinova">Tatyana Ustinova</a> in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-14">[14]</a></sup> On June 3, 2007, a massive <a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">mudflow</a> influenced two thirds of the valley.<sup id="cite_ref-NG_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NG-16">[16]</a></sup> It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Velikan_Geyser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Velikan Geyser (page does not exist)">Velikan Geyser</a>, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (January 2019)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> been observed to be active.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="El_Tatio.2C_Chile"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="El_Tatio,_Chile">El Tatio, Chile</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: El Tatio, Chile">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><div id="mwe_player_0" class="PopUpMediaTransform" style="width:220px;" videopayload="<div class="mediaContainer" style="width:320px"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/320px--ElTatioMovie.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:320px;height:240px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="9.2008843537415" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="ElTatioMovie.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/ElTatioMovie.ogv.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="206128" data-framerate="25"/><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/ElTatioMovie.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Small VP9 (240P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="277400" data-framerate="25"/><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Original Ogg file, 320 × 240 (796 kbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="796072" data-framerate="25"/><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/ElTatioMovie.ogv.120p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Lowest bandwidth VP9 (120P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 120P" data-transcodekey="120p.vp9.webm" data-width="160" data-height="120" data-bandwidth="156640" data-framerate="25"/><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/ElTatioMovie.ogv.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="214" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="139608" data-framerate="25"/><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/ElTatioMovie.ogv.180p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth VP9 (180P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 180P" data-transcodekey="180p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="180" data-bandwidth="205304" data-framerate="25"/></video></div>"><img alt="File:ElTatioMovie.ogv" style="width:220px;height:165px" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/220px--ElTatioMovie.ogv.jpg" /><a href="/media/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv" title="Play media" target="new"><span class="play-btn-large"><span class="mw-tmh-playtext">Play media</span></span></a></div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ElTatioMovie.ogv" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A geyser bubbling at <a href="/wiki/El_Tatio" title="El Tatio">El Tatio</a> geyser field</div></div></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/El_Tatio" title="El Tatio">El Tatio</a></div>
<p>The name "El Tatio" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a> word for <i>oven</i>. El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> surrounded by many active volcanoes in <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, South America at around 4,200 metres (13,800 ft) above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only six metres (20 ft) high, but with steam columns that can be over 20 metres (66 ft) high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about 750 millimetres (30 in).<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Taupo_Volcanic_Zone.2C_New_Zealand"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Taupo_Volcanic_Zone,_New_Zealand">Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taupo_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupo Volcanic Zone">Taupo Volcanic Zone</a></div>
<p>The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a>. It is 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by 50 km wide (31 mi) and lies over a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone in the Earth's crust. <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ruapehu" title="Mount Ruapehu">Mount Ruapehu</a> marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano (85 km or 53 mi beyond <a href="/wiki/Whakaari_/_White_Island" title="Whakaari / White Island">White Island</a>) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gamble |first=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-
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</p><p>rcenter.com/english/geology.html <i>The Geology of the Icelandic geysers</i> by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html"><i>Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems</i> by Meg Streepey</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1">National Geographic</a></li>
<li><img alt="Wikisource" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Geysers"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Geysers">"Geysers" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <b>10</b> (9th ed.). 1879.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geysers&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=9th&rft.date=1879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geysers" title="List of geysers">List of geysers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">Geyserite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">Hyperthermophile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophile</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Tatio" title="El Tatio">El Tatio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geysir" title="Geysir">Geysir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Knox_Geyser" title="Lady Knox Geyser">Lady Knox Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orakei_Korako" title="Orakei Korako">Orakei Korako</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taupo_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupo Volcanic Zone">Taupo Volcanic Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Waiotapu" title="Waiotapu">Waiotapu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Waimangu_Geyser" title="Waimangu Geyser">Waimangu Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wairakei" title="Wairakei">Wairakei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whakarewarewa" title="Whakarewarewa">Whakarewarewa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Geysers" title="Valley of Geysers">Valley of Geysers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soda_Springs,_Idaho" title="Soda Springs, Idaho">Soda Springs, Idaho</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beowawe,_Nevada" title="Beowawe, Nevada">Beowawe, Nevada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Black_Rock_Desert" title="Black Rock Desert">Black Rock Desert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Springs,_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Steamboat Springs, Nevada">Steamboat Springs, Nevada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Geyser" title="Crystal Geyser">Crystal Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geysers_of_Wyoming" title="Category:Geysers of Wyoming">(more...)</a></b></li></ul>
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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser">"Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+geyser+noun+from+Cambridge+Dictionary+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fbritish%2Fgeyser%3Fq%3Dgeyser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite web requires <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser">"geyser | Definition of geyser in English by Oxford Dictionaries"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionaries | English</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionaries+%7C+English&rft.atitle=geyser+%7C+Definition+of+geyser+in+English+by+Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fgeyser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryan, T.S. 1995</span>
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<li id="cite_note-wyo-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>wyo</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Erickson, Jon (2014-05-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&pg=PA127&dq=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj21vfdw9DUAhUF2mMKHfB9CoQQ6AEIRzAH#v=onepage&q=heat%20for%20geyser%20formation%20comes%20from%20near%20surface%20magma&f=false"><i>Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438109695" title="Special:BookSources/9781438109695"><bdi>9781438109695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quakes%2C+Eruptions%2C+and+Other+Geologic+Cataclysms%3A+Revealing+the+Earth%27s+Hazards&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.isbn=9781438109695&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DljXMs4rkv3gC%26pg%3DPA127%26dq%3Dheat%2Bfor%2Bgeyser%2Bformation%2Bcomes%2Bfrom%2Bnear%2Bsurface%2Bmagma%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwj21vfdw9DUAhUF2mMKHfB9CoQQ6AEIRzAH%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dheat%2520for%2520geyser%2520formation%2520comes%2520from%2520near%2520surface%2520magma%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-leekry-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Krystek, Lee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm">"Weird Geology: Geysers]"</a>. Museum of Unnatural Mystery<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weird+Geology%3A+Geysers%5D&rft.pub=Museum+of+Unnatural+Mystery&rft.aulast=Krystek&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unmuseum.org%2Fgeysers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite web requires <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Lewin, Sarah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/instant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over">"Instant Egghead: How do geysers erupt over and over?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-05-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Instant+Egghead%3A+How+do+geysers+erupt+over+and+over%3F&rft.aulast=Lewin&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Finstant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite web requires <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071116174629/http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm">"Yellowstone thermal features"</a>. Yahoo!. 2008-04-02. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm">the original</a> on November 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yellowstone+thermal+features&rft.pub=Yahoo%21&rft.date=2008-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2Fdmonteit%2Fov_quick_guide.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite uses deprecated parameter <code class="cs1-code">|deadurl=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#deprecated_params" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>); </span><span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite web requires <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-bot-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bot_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bot_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171-185</span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf">Extremophiles</a> atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01</span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. <i>Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.</i> Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, <b>65(1)</b>, 1-34.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/">Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Delaware" title="University of Delaware">University of Delaware</a>, Retrieved on 2008-03-29 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071010114505/http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/">Archived</a> October 10, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995</span>
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<li id="cite_note-uweb-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Glennon, J Allan <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm">"World Geyser Fields"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm">Archived</a> 2007-06-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 2008-04-04</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm">"Yellowstone geysers"</a> nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20</span>
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<li id="cite_note-NG-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NG_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Mehta, Aalok (2008-04-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605-geyser-valley.html">"Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Photo+in+the+News%3A+Russia%27s+Valley+of+the+Geysers+Lost+in+Landslide&rft.date=2008-04-16&rft.aulast=Mehta&rft.aufirst=Aalok&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2007%2F06%2F070605-geyser-valley.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite news requires <code class="cs1-code">|newspaper=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Harding, Luke (2007-06-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html">"Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka's Valley of Geysers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardian Unlimited">Guardian Unlimited</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guardian+Unlimited&rft.atitle=Mudslide+fully+changes+terrain+in+Kamchatka%E2%80%99s+Valley+of+Geysers&rft.date=2007-06-05&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Frussia%2Farticle%2F0%2C%2C2095579%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Shpilenok, Igor (2007-06-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm">"June 2007 Special release - The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm">the original</a> on April 12, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=June+2007+Special+release+-+The+Natural+Disaster+at+the+Valley+of+the+Geysers&rft.date=2007-06-09&rft.aulast=Shpilenok&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shpilenok.com%2Fnew%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite uses deprecated parameter <code class="cs1-code">|deadurl=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#deprecated_params" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>); </span><span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite news requires <code class="cs1-code">|newspaper=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003</span>
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</ol></div>
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