Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{about|volcanic geysers|{{CO2}}-driven geysers|Cold-water geyser|other uses}}
{{Short description|Natural explosive eruption of hot water}}
{{Infobox landform
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[[File:Geyser animation.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A cross-section of a geyser in action]]
A '''geyser''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|aɪ|z|ər}}, {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|g|iː|z|ə}})<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser | title = Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online | access-date = 2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609235600/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 9, 2013|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English}}</ref> is a [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]] characterized by an intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular [[hydrogeological]] conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth.
Generally all geyser field sites are located near active [[volcanic]] areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of [[magma]]. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around {{convert|2000|m|ft}} where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent.
A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing [[mineral]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby [[hot spring]]s, [[earthquake]] influences, and human intervention.<ref>Bryan, T.S. 1995</ref> Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as [[#Cryogeysers|cryogeysers]], have been observed on several of the [[Natural satellite|moons]] of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]], while [[nitrogen]] eruptions have been observed on [[Neptune]]'s moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]].
There are also signs of [[Geysers on Mars|carbon dioxide eruptions]] from the southern polar ice cap of [[Mars]]. In the case of Enceladus, the plumes are believed to be driven by internal energy. In the cases of the venting on Mars and Triton, the activity may be a result of solar heating via a solid-state [[greenhouse effect]]. In all three cases, there is no evidence of the subsurface hydrological system which differentiates terrestrial geysers from other sorts of venting, such as [[Fumarole|fumaroles]].
== Etymology ==
The term 'geyser' in English dates back to the late 18th century and comes from [[Geysir]], which is a geyser in [[Iceland]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705210214/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 5, 2019|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Lexico Dictionaries|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref> Its name means "one who gushes".<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=geyser {{!}} Origin and meaning of geyser by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/geyser|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en}}</ref>
== Form and function ==
[[File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone.jpg|alt=Water and steam erupting from rocky, barren ground. Fir trees in the background.|[[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb|250px]]
Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.<ref name="wyo">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150422214534/http://wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm How geysers form] Gregory L.</ref>{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}} As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain: intense heat, water, and a plumbing system.<ref name="wyo" />{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}}
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from [[magma]] that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&q=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&pg=PA127|title=Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards|last=Erickson|first=Jon|date=2014-05-14|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438109695}}</ref> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system (made of [[fracture]]s, [[ground fissure|fissures]], porous spaces, and sometimes cavities) is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along [[Fault (geology)|faults]].<ref name="wyo" />{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}}
== Eruptions ==
{| class="infobox" style="width: 300px;"
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{| style="background: white; white-space: nowrap;" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=2
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|[[File:geyser exploding 1 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 2 large.jpg|150px]]
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|[[File:geyser exploding 4 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 3 large.jpg|150px]]
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|-
|[[Strokkur|Strokkur geyser]] erupting (clockwise from top left)
# Steam rises from heated water
# Pulses of water swell upward
# Surface is broken
# Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe
|}
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by [[magma]]. In non-eruptive hot springs, the [[Geothermal energy|geothermally]] heated water then rises back toward the surface by [[convection]] through porous and fractured rocks, while in geysers, the water instead is explosively forced upwards by the high pressure created when water boils below. Geysers also differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.<ref name="leekry">{{cite web |last=Krystek |first=Lee |url=http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm |title=Weird Geology: Geysers] |publisher=Museum of Unnatural Mystery |access-date=2008-03-28}}</ref>
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, [[Convection|convective cooling]] of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a [[pressure cooker]], allowing the water in the reservoir to become [[superheating|superheated]], i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.<ref name="leekry" />
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins, forcing steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into [[steam]], boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.<ref name="wyo" />{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Sarah |title = Instant Egghead: How do geysers erupt over and over? |journal=[[Scientific American]] |year=2015 |volume=312 |issue=5 |page=27 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0515-27 |pmid=26336706 |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/instant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over |access-date=2015-05-17 }}</ref>
A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called [[geyserite]] found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite, mostly [[silicon dioxide]] (SiO<sub>2</sub>), is dissolved from the rocks and is deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not leak out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.<ref name="leekry" />
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; [[Strokkur]] in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while [[Grand Geyser]] in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.<ref name="leekry" />
== General categorization ==
There are two types of geysers: ''fountain geysers'' which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of [[siliceous sinter]] (including [[geyserite]]), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]], perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. [[Grand Geyser]], the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although [[Geysir]] in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |title=Yellowstone thermal features |publisher=Yahoo! |date=2008-04-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116174629/http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |archive-date=November 16, 2007 }}</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = left
|width1 = 202
|width2 = 180
|image1 = Fountain geyser.jpg
|image2 = Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park.jpg
|alt1 = Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool.
|alt2 = High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth.
|footer = [[Fountain Geyser]] erupting from the pool (left) and [[Old Faithful geyser]] (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in [[Yellowstone National Park]] erupts approximately every 91 minutes (right).
}}
There are many volcanic areas in the world that have [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Brown|first=Sabrina|date=2019 |title=Diatom-inferred records of paleolimnological variability and continental hydrothermal activity in Yellowstone National Park, USA|url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geoscidiss/122|type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of Nebraska–Lincoln}}</ref>
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by [[geothermal power]] plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of [[surfactant]] soaps to the water.<ref name="Pasvanoglu_etal_2000">{{cite journal | title=Geochemical Study of the Geysir Geothermal Field in Haukadalur, S. Iceland | first1=S. | last1=Pasvanoglu | first2=H. | last2=Kristmannsdóttir | first3=S. | last3= Björnsson | first4=H. | last4=Torfason | journal=Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000 | year=2000}}</ref>
== Biology ==
{{Further|Thermophile|Hyperthermophile}}
[[File:Aerial image of Grand Prismatic Spring (view from the south).jpg|alt=Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground.|thumb|upright=1.25|Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park]]
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]]) in the form of [[thermophiles|thermophilic]] [[prokaryote]]s. No known [[eukaryote]] can survive over {{convert|60|°C|°F|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="bot">Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171–185</ref>
In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around {{convert|73|°C|°F|adj=mid|maximum}}—the upper limit for the survival of [[cyanobacteria]], as the structure of key cellular [[protein]]s and [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around {{convert|55|°C|°F|adj=mid|average|0}}.<ref name="bot" />
However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of [[water (molecule)|water]]. Dozens of such bacteria are known.<ref>Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; [http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf Extremophiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409071712/http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf |date=2008-04-09 }} atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01</ref>
[[Thermophile]]s prefer temperatures from {{convert|50|to|70|°C|°F|0}}, whilst [[hyperthermophile]]s grow better at temperatures as high as {{convert|80|to|110|°C|°F|0}}. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable [[tool]]s, that are important in [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]],<ref>Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, '''65(1)''', 1–34.</ref> for example in manufacturing [[antibiotic]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[detergent]]s (by the use of heat-stable enzymes [[lipase]]s, [[pullulanase]]s and [[protease]]s), and fermentation products (for example [[ethanol]] is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''[[Thermus aquaticus]]''.<ref>[http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase] [[University of Delaware]], Retrieved on 2008-03-29 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010114505/http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ |date=October 10, 2007 }}</ref>
== Major geyser fields and their distribution ==
[[File:World geyser distribution.gif|alt=Map showing that locations of geysers tend to cluster in specific areas of the world.|thumb|upright=1.35|Distribution of major geysers in the world.]]
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of [[water]], [[heat]], and fortuitous [[plumbing]]. The combination exists in few places on Earth.<ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995</ref><ref name="uweb">Glennon, J Allan [http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm "World Geyser Fields"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm |date=2007-06-30 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-04</ref>
=== Yellowstone National Park, U.S. ===
{{Main|Yellowstone National Park|List of Yellowstone geothermal features|Geothermal areas of Yellowstone}}
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in [[Wyoming]], USA, with small portions in [[Montana]] and [[Idaho]].<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm "Yellowstone geysers"] nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20</ref> Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser ([[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Norris Geyser Basin]]).
=== Valley of Geysers, Russia ===
[[File:Kamchatka Valley of Geysers.webm|thumb|right|120px|Breathing Geyser Double, Valley of Geysers in [[Kamchatka Krai]]]]
{{Main|Valley of Geysers}}
The Valley of Geysers ({{lang-ru|Долина гейзеров}}) located in the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] of [[Russia]] is the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by [[Tatyana Ustinova]] in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous [[volcano|volcanic]] activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.<ref name="uweb" /> On June 3, 2007, a massive [[mudflow]] influenced two thirds of the valley.<ref name="NG">{{cite news | first=Aalok | last=Mehta | title=Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605-geyser-valley.html | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | date=2008-04-16 | access-date=2007-06-07 }}</ref> It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.<ref>{{cite news |first=Luke |last=Harding |title=Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka's Valley of Geysers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html |work=[[Guardian Unlimited]] |date=2007-06-05 |access-date=2008-04-16 }}</ref> Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. [[Velikan Geyser]], one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently{{quantify|date=January 2019}} been observed to be active.<ref>{{cite news|first=Igor |last=Shpilenok|title=June 2007 Special release – The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers |url=http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm|date=2007-06-09|access-date=2008-04-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm |archive-date = April 12, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== El Tatio, Chile ===
[[File:ElTatioMovie.ogg|alt=Video of bubbling geyser, with sound.|thumb|right|A geyser bubbling at [[El Tatio]] geyser field]]
{{Main|El Tatio}}
The name "El Tatio" comes from the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] word for ''oven''. El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the [[Andes]] surrounded by many active volcanoes in [[Chile]], South America at around {{convert|4200|m}} above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only {{convert|6|m|spell=in}} high, but with steam columns that can be over {{convert|20|m}} high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about {{convert|750|mm}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003</ref>
=== Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand ===
{{Main|Taupō Volcanic Zone}}
The Taupō Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine [[Whakatāne seamount]] ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gamble |first1=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=417–435 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122075312/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |archive-date=2008-11-22 }}</ref> Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to [[Geothermal power|geothermal]] developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist.
In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the [[Waimangu Geyser]] existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a [[landslide]] changed the local [[water table]]. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach {{convert|160|m}} and some superbursts are known to have reached {{convert|500|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /> Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as {{convert|5|km|mi|spell=in}} thick. Beneath this lies a film of [[magma]] {{convert|50|km|-1}} wide and {{convert|160|km|-1}} long.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html Central North Island sitting on magma film] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107010456/http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html |date=2009-01-07 }} Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16</ref>
=== Iceland ===
{{Main|Iceland}}
Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some of the most famous geysers in the world. There are around 20–29 active geysers in the country as well as numerous formerly active geysers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wondermondo.com/geysers-of-iceland/|title=Geysers of Iceland|date=5 October 2019|access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref> Icelandic geysers are distributed in the zone stretching from south-west to north-east, along the boundary between the [[Eurasian Plate]] and the [[North American Plate]]. Most of the Icelandic geysers are comparatively short-lived, it is also characteristic that many geysers here are reactivated or newly created after earthquakes, becoming dormant or extinct after some years or some decades.
Two most prominent geysers of Iceland are located in [[Haukadalur]]. ''[[The Great Geysir]]'', which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word ''[[wiktionary:geyser|geyser]]''. By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby [[Strokkur]] geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some {{convert|30|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Gardner Servian, Solveig [http://website.lineone.net/~polar.publishing/geysersoficeland.htm "Geysers of Iceland"] Retrieved on 2008-04-16</ref>
Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. Some former geysers have developed historical farms, which benefitted from the use of the hot water since medieval times.
=== Extinct and dormant geyser fields ===
There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]—[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs, Nevada|Steamboat Springs]]—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.<ref name="uweb" />
Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]].<ref>[http://www.whakarewarewa.com/ "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village"] Retrieved 2008-04-04</ref> Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the construction of the hydroelectric [[Ohakuri dam]] in 1961.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/Environment/Natural-resources/Geothermal/Geothermal-systems-map/Orakeikorako/|title=Orakeikorako|website=www.waikatoregion.govt.nz|access-date=2020-05-23}}</ref> The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yellowstone Supervolcano Could Be an Energy Source. But Should It?|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-yellowstone-supervolcano-geothermal-energy-debate-iceland-hawaii/|date=2018-08-08|website=Science|language=en|access-date=2020-05-23}}</ref> The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera|1886 eruption]] of [[Mount Tarawera]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=1886 Mt Tarawera Eruption|url=https://www.waimangu.co.nz/history/eruption-birth-of-waimangu|last=Valley|first=Waimangu Volcanic|website=Waimangu Volcanic Valley|language=en|access-date=2020-05-23|archive-date=2020-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515214651/https://www.waimangu.co.nz/history/eruption-birth-of-waimangu|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Klemetti|first=Erik|date=2011-02-10|title=The 1886 Eruption of Mt. Tarawera, New Zealand|language=en-US|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/02/the-1886-eruption-of-mt-tarawera-new-zealand/|access-date=2020-05-23|issn=1059-1028}}</ref>
== Misnamed geysers ==
There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.
=== Artificial geysers ===
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book ''A Guide to Geyser Gazing'' (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".<ref>Jones, Wyoming [http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm "Old Faithful Geyser of California"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607050719/http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm |date=2019-06-07 }} ''WyoJones' Geyser Pages'' Retrieved on 2008-03-31</ref>
In the case of the Big Mine Run Geyser in [[Ashland, Pennsylvania]], the heat powering the geyser (which erupts from an abandoned mine vent) comes not from geothermal power, but from the long-simmering [[Centralia mine fire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wnep.com/article/news/local/schuylkill-county/getting-to-the-bottom-of-this-gushing-geyser-in-schuylkill-county/523-eede19c1-008d-4987-bfe1-9ee658b41dab|title=Getting to the Bottom of This Gushing Geyser in Schuylkill County|work=WNEP-TV|date=June 17, 2018|first=Jessica|last=Albert|access-date=December 7, 2021}}</ref>
=== Perpetual spouter ===
This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.<ref>WyoJones [http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm "Thermal Feature Definitions"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721165037/http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm |date=2019-07-21 }} ''WyoJones'' Retrieved on 2008-04-03</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Blog without any cited source references|date=August 2023}}
== Commercialization ==
[[File:Strokkur, Iceland.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting.|The [[Strokkur|geyser Strokkur]] in Iceland – a tourist spot.]]
Geysers are used for various activities such as [[electricity]] generation, heating and [[tourism]]. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near [[Calistoga, California]] through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers-Calistoga KGRA |publisher=DOE–SciTech |date=14 July 1980 |doi=10.2172/6817678 |osti = 6817678|last1=O'Banion |first1=K. |last2=Hall |first2=C. |s2cid=129626036 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1195594/ }}</ref> The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.<ref>Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA] osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12</ref>
== Cryogeysers ==
{{further|Cryovolcano}}
There are many bodies in the [[Solar System]] where jet-like eruptions, often termed '''cryogeysers''' (''cryo'' meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on [[Earth]], these represent eruptions of [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]], together with [[Entrainment (physical geography)|entrained]] dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the [[Geyser#Eruptions|physical processes involved]] are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble [[fumarole]]s.
* '''Enceladus'''
: Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[nitrogen]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[silicate]]s), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the "[[Tiger Stripes (Enceladus)|tiger stripes]]" in the south polar region of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]] by the ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by [[Tidal acceleration#Tidal heating|tidal heating]] resulting from [[orbital eccentricity]] due to a 2:1 mean-motion [[orbital resonance]] with the moon [[Dione (moon)|Dione]].<ref name="cold-geyser-model" /><ref name="Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1123013| last1 = Porco| first1 = C. C.| author-link1 = Carolyn Porco| last2 = Helfenstein| first2 = P.| last3 = Thomas| first3 = P. C.| last4 = Ingersoll| first4 = A. P.| last5 = Wisdom| first5 = J.| last6 = West| first6 = R.| last7 = Neukum| first7 = G.| last8 = Denk| first8 = T.| last9 = Wagner| first9 = R.| s2cid = 6976648| date = 10 March 2006| title = Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus| journal = Science| volume = 311| issue = 5766| pages = 1393–1401| pmid = 16527964| bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1393P| url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36593/| ref = {{sfnRef|Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006}}}}</ref>
* '''Europa'''
: In December 2013, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] detected [[vapor|water vapor plumes]] above the south polar region of [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of Jupiter's [[Galilean moon]]s. It is thought that Europa's [[lineae]] might be venting this water vapor into space, caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web|last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |work=NASA}}</ref>
* '''Mars'''
: Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the [[Climate of Mars#Polar caps|south polar cap]] of [[Mars]] each spring. Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the [[dry ice]], representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a [[Martian spiders|spider-like pattern of grooves]] created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.<ref name = "THEMIS">{{cite web
| last = Burnham
| first = Robert
| title = Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars
| work = [[Arizona State University]] web site
| date = 2006-08-16
| url = http://www.asu.edu/news/stories/200608/20060818_marsplumes.htm
| access-date = 2009-08-29}}</ref>
* '''Triton'''
: One of the great surprises of the ''[[Voyager 2]]'' flyby of [[Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of [[Triton (moon)#Cryovolcanism|eruptions]] on its moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.<ref>{{cite web
| date = June 1, 2005
| title = Triton (Voyager)
| publisher = NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission)
| url = http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/neptune_triton.html
| access-date = 2008-04-03
}}</ref> These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's [[subsolar point]], indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid [[greenhouse effect]]", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. ''Voyager''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.<ref name="harv">Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1990LPI....21..633K&letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=633&epage=633&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf "Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton"] ''[[Harvard University|Harvard]]'' Retrieved 2008-04-08</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = center
|width1 = 160
|width2 = 190
|width3 = 215
|image1 = Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg
|image2 = Fountains of Enceladus PIA07758.jpg
|image3 = Enceladus Cold Geyser Model.svg
|caption1 = Dark streaks deposited by geysers on [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]
|caption2 = Jets thought to be geysers erupting from [[Enceladus]]{{'}} subsurface
|caption3 = The Cold Geyser Model – a proposed explanation for cryovolcanism<ref name="cold-geyser-model">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia07799.html |work=NASA |title=Enceladus "Cold Geyser" Model |date=3 September 2006}}</ref>
}}
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Earth sciences|Geology}}
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Cold-water geyser}}
* {{annotated link|Earliest known life forms}}
* {{annotated link|Hot spring}}
* {{annotated link|Hydrothermal explosion}}
* {{annotated link|Ice volcano}}
* {{annotated link|List of geysers}}
* {{annotated link|Mudpot}}
* {{annotated link|Geothermal activity}}
{{div col end}}
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
== References ==
* Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. {{ISBN|0-87081-365-X}}
* [[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.
* [[Glennon, J.A.]] (2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070902032519/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm About Geysers]'', University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.
* Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789–790.
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-6084-4|title=Geysers and Geothermal Energy|year=1980|last1=Rinehart|first1=John S.|isbn=978-1-4612-6086-8}}
* Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. {{ISBN|0-943972-09-4}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.250.4979.410|pmid=17793016|title=Triton's Geyser-Like Plumes: Discovery and Basic Characterization|journal=Science|volume=250|issue=4979|pages=410–415|year=1990|last1=Soderblom|first1=L. A.|last2=Kieffer|first2=S. W.|last3=Becker|first3=T. L.|last4=Brown|first4=R. H.|last5=Cook|first5=A. F.|last6=Hansen|first6=C. J.|last7=Johnson|first7=T. V.|last8=Kirk|first8=R. L.|last9=Shoemaker|first9=E. M.|bibcode=1990Sci...250..410S|s2cid=1948948}}
* Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) ''Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park'', Publ. 466. Carnegie Institution of Washington, [[Washington, D.C.]], 525 p.
* Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: ''Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland'', Publ. 587. [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], Washington, D.C., 174 p.
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1029/JB077i002p00342|title=Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in Earth tidal forces, barometric pressure, and tectonic stresses|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=77|issue=2|pages=342–350|year=1972|last1=Rinehart|first1=John S.|bibcode=1972JGR....77..342R}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.177.4046.346|pmid=17813197|title=18.6-Year Earth Tide Regulates Geyser Activity|journal=Science|volume=177|issue=4046|pages=346–347|year=1972|last1=Rinehart|first1=J. S.|bibcode=1972Sci...177..346R|s2cid=33025115}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-6084-4|title=Geysers and Geothermal Energy|year=1980|last1=Rinehart|first1=John S.|isbn=978-1-4612-6086-8}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.257.5075.1363|pmid=17738277|title=Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes|journal=Science|volume=257|issue=5075|pages=1363–1368|year=1992|last1=Silver|first1=P. G.|last2=Valette-Silver|first2=N. J.|bibcode=1992Sci...257.1363S|s2cid=3718672}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2475/ajs.265.8.641|title=Some principles of geyser activity, mainly from Steamboat Springs, Nevada|journal=American Journal of Science|volume=265|issue=8|pages=641–684|year=1967|last1=White|first1=D. E.|bibcode=1967AmJS..265..641W|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0734-9750(00)00041-0|pmid=14538100|title=Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology|journal=Biotechnology Advances|volume=18|issue=5|pages=355–383|year=2000|last1=Bhat|first1=M.K.}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0960-8524(03)00033-6|pmid=12676497|title=Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: A review|journal=Bioresource Technology|volume=89|pages=17–34|year=2003|last1=Haki|first1=G.|issue=1}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1128/MMBR.65.1.1-43.2001|pmid=11238984|title=Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=65|pages=1–43|year=2001|last1=Vieille|first1=C.|last2=Zeikus|first2=G. J.|issue=1|pmc=99017|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0167-7799(02)02073-5|pmid=12443873|title=The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=20|issue=12|pages=515–521|year=2002|last1=Schiraldi|first1=Chiara|last2=De Rosa|first2=Mario}}
* Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. ''An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus.'' Applied and Environmental Microbiology. '''1996''', 62(8), 3047–3049.
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00446-1|pmid=12095262|title=The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase, at 1.8Å Resolution|journal=Journal of Molecular Biology|volume=320|issue=4|pages=883–897|year=2002|last1=Crennell|first1=Susan J.|last2=Hreggvidsson|first2=Gudmundur O.|last3=Nordberg Karlsson|first3=Eva}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(03)00467-4|pmid=12767825|title=Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanase from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanistic Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms|journal=Journal of Molecular Biology|volume=329|issue=3|pages=403–410|year=2003|last1=Hirvonen|first1=Mika|last2=Papageorgiou|first2=Anastassios C.}}
* Iogen doubles [https://web.archive.org/web/20040903203044/http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html EcoEthanol Capacity]. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, '''2003''').
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0032-9592(02)00237-6|title=Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase|journal=Process Biochemistry|volume=38|issue=7|pages=1063–1067|year=2003|last1=Pèlach|first1=M.A|last2=Pastor|first2=F.J|last3=Puig|first3=J.|last4=Vilaseca|first4=F.|last5=Mutjé|first5=P.}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2003.12.009|title=Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases|journal=Industrial Crops and Products|volume=20|pages=11–21|year=2004|last1=Dienes|first1=D.|last2=Egyházi|first2=A.|last3=Réczey|first3=K.}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00315-7|pmid=11500222|title=Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment|journal=Journal of Biotechnology|volume=89|issue=2–3|pages=271–279|year=2001|last1=Csiszár|first1=Emı́lia|last2=Losonczi|first2=Anita|last3=Szakács|first3=George|last4=Rusznák|first4=István|last5=Bezúr|first5=László|last6=Reicher|first6=Johanna}}
* Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., ''Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories'' ([[New York City|New York]]: John Wiley & Sons, '''1981'''), 26.
* Harsh K. Gupta, ''Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative'' ([[Amsterdam]]: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, '''1980'''), 186.
* The Earth Explored: ''Geothermal Energy'', 19857 videocassette.
* Brimner, Larry Dane. ''Geysers''. New York: Children's Press, '''2000'''.
* Downs, Sandra. ''Earth's Fiery Fury.'' Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, '''2000'''.
* Gallant, Roy A. ''Geysers: When Earth Roars.'' New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, '''1997'''.
* {{Cite PSM |last=LeConte |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph LeConte |wstitle=Geysers and How They are Explained|month-and-year=February 1878|volume=12 }}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Geyser}}
{{AmCyc Poster|Geysers}}
* [http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]
* [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
* [http://www.geysertimes.org GeyserTimes.org]
* [http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040207004906/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
* [http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]
* [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070416140350/http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
* [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html ''Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems'' by Meg Streepey]
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1 National Geographic]
* {{Cite EB9|wstitle=Geysers|volume=10|pages=556-558 |short=x}}
{{Earth's landforms}}
{{Geysers}}
{{Rivers, streams and springs}}
{{Good article}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Geysers| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]
[[Category:Springs (hydrology)]]
[[Category:Bodies of water]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{about|volcanic geysers|{{CO2}}-driven geysers|Cold-water geyser|other uses}}
{{Short description|Natural explosive eruption of hot water}}
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[[File:Geyser animation.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|A cross-section of a geyser in action]]
A '''geyser''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|aɪ|z|ər}}, {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|g|iː|z|ə}})<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser | title = Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online | access-date = 2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609235600/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 9, 2013|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English}}</ref> is a [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]] characterized by an intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular [[hydrogeological]] conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth.
Generally all geyser field sites are located near active [[volcanic]] areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of [[magma]]. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around {{convert|2000.0987654321`1234567898765432123456789876543213498765432435678900876543214356475869708976543213342537585875425254397865433|m|ft}} where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent.
A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing [[mineral]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby [[hot spring]]s, [[earthquake]] influences, and human intervention.<ref>Bryan, T.S. 1995</ref> Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as [[#Cryogeysers|cryogeysers]], have been observed on several of the [[Natural satellite|moons]] of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]], while [[nitrogen]] eruptions have been observed on [[Neptune]]'s moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]].
There are also signs of [[Geysers on Mars|carbon dioxide eruptions]] from the southern polar ice cap of [[Mars]]. In the case of Enceladus, the plumes are believed to be driven by internal energy. In the cases of the venting on Mars and Triton, the activity may be a result of solar heating via a solid-state [[greenhouse effect]]. In all three cases, there is no evidence of the subsurface hydrological system which differentiates terrestrial geysers from other sorts of venting, such as [[Fumarole|fumaroles]].
== Etymology ==
The term 'geyser' in English dates back to the late 18th century and comes from [[Geysir]], which is a geyser in [[Iceland]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705210214/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 5, 2019|title=geyser {{!}} Definition of geyser in English by Lexico Dictionaries|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref> Its name means "one who gushes".<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=geyser {{!}} Origin and meaning of geyser by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/geyser|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en}}</ref>
== Form and function ==
[[File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowretardstone.jpg|alt=Water and steam erupting from rocky, barren ground. Fir trees in the background.|[[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb|250px]]
Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.<ref name="wyo">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150422214534/http://wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm How geysers form] Gregory L.</ref>{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}} As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain: intense heat, water, and a plumbing system.<ref name="wyo" />{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}}
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from [[magma]] that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&q=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&pg=PA127|title=Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards|last=Erickson|first=Jon|date=2014-05-14|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438109695}}</ref> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system (made of [[fracture]]s, [[ground fissure|fissures]], porous spaces, and sometimes cavities) is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along [[Fault (geology)|faults]].<ref name="wyo" />{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}}
== Eruptions ==
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|[[File:geyser exploding 1 large.jpg|150px]] [[File:geyser exploding 2 large.jpg|150px]]
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|[[Strokkur|Strokkur geyser]] erupting (clockwise from top left)
# Steam rises from heated water
# Pulses of water swell upward
# Surface is broken
# Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe
|}
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by [[magma]]. In non-eruptive hot springs, the [[Geothermal energy|geothermally]] heated water then rises back toward the surface by [[convection]] through porous and fractured rocks, while in geysers, the water instead is explosively forced upwards by the high pressure created when water boils below. Geysers also differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.<ref name="leekry">{{cite web |last=Krystek |first=Lee |url=http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm |title=Weird Geology: Geysers] |publisher=Museum of Unnatural Mystery |access-date=2008-03-28}}</ref>
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, [[Convection|convective cooling]] of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a [[pressure cooker]], allowing the water in the reservoir to become [[superheating|superheated]], i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.<ref name="leekry" />
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins, forcing steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into [[steam]], boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.<ref name="wyo" />{{Better source needed|date=December 2021}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Sarah |title = Instant Egghead: How do geysers erupt over and over? |journal=[[Scientific American]] |year=2015 |volume=312 |issue=5 |page=27 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0515-27 |pmid=26336706 |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/instant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over |access-date=2015-05-17 }}</ref>
A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called [[geyserite]] found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite, mostly [[silicon dioxide]] (SiO<sub>2</sub>), is dissolved from the rocks and is deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not leak out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.<ref name="leekry" />
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; [[Strokkur]] in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while [[Grand Geyser]] in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.<ref name="leekry" />
== General categorization ==
There are two types of geysers: ''fountain geysers'' which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of [[siliceous sinter]] (including [[geyserite]]), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]], perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. [[Grand Geyser]], the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although [[Geysir]] in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |title=Yellowstone thermal features |publisher=Yahoo! |date=2008-04-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116174629/http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm |archive-date=November 16, 2007 }}</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = left
|width1 = 202
|width2 = 180
|image1 = Fountain geyser.jpg
|image2 = Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park.jpg
|alt1 = Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool.
|alt2 = High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth.
|footer = [[Fountain Geyser]] erupting from the pool (left) and [[Old Faithful geyser]] (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in [[Yellowstone National Park]] erupts approximately every 91 minutes (right).
}}
There are many volcanic areas in the world that have [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Brown|first=Sabrina|date=2019 |title=Diatom-inferred records of paleolimnological variability and continental hydrothermal activity in Yellowstone National Park, USA|url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geoscidiss/122|type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of Nebraska–Lincoln}}</ref>
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by [[geothermal power]] plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of [[surfactant]] soaps to the water.<ref name="Pasvanoglu_etal_2000">{{cite journal | title=Geochemical Study of the Geysir Geothermal Field in Haukadalur, S. Iceland | first1=S. | last1=Pasvanoglu | first2=H. | last2=Kristmannsdóttir | first3=S. | last3= Björnsson | first4=H. | last4=Torfason | journal=Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000 | year=2000}}</ref>
== Biology ==
{{Further|Thermophile|Hyperthermophile}}
[[File:Aerial image of Grand Prismatic Spring (view from the south).jpg|alt=Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground.|thumb|upright=1.25|Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park]]
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]]) in the form of [[thermophiles|thermophilic]] [[prokaryote]]s. No known [[eukaryote]] can survive over {{convert|60|°C|°F|0|lk=on}}.<ref name="bot">Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171–185</ref>
In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around {{convert|73|°C|°F|adj=mid|maximum}}—the upper limit for the survival of [[cyanobacteria]], as the structure of key cellular [[protein]]s and [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around {{convert|55|°C|°F|adj=mid|average|0}}.<ref name="bot" />
However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of [[water (molecule)|water]]. Dozens of such bacteria are known.<ref>Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; [http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf Extremophiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409071712/http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf |date=2008-04-09 }} atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01</ref>
[[Thermophile]]s prefer temperatures from {{convert|50|to|70|°C|°F|0}}, whilst [[hyperthermophile]]s grow better at temperatures as high as {{convert|80|to|110|°C|°F|0}}. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable [[tool]]s, that are important in [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]],<ref>Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. ''Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.'' Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, '''65(1)''', 1–34.</ref> for example in manufacturing [[antibiotic]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[detergent]]s (by the use of heat-stable enzymes [[lipase]]s, [[pullulanase]]s and [[protease]]s), and fermentation products (for example [[ethanol]] is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''[[Thermus aquaticus]]''.<ref>[http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase] [[University of Delaware]], Retrieved on 2008-03-29 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010114505/http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/ |date=October 10, 2007 }}</ref>
== Major geyser fields and their distribution ==
[[File:World geyser distribution.gif|alt=Map showing that locations of geysers tend to cluster in specific areas of the world.|thumb|upright=1.35|Distribution of major geysers in the world.]]
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of [[water]], [[heat]], and fortuitous [[plumbing]]. The combination exists in few places on Earth.<ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995</ref><ref name="uweb">Glennon, J Allan [http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm "World Geyser Fields"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm |date=2007-06-30 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-04</ref>
=== Yellowstone National Park, U.S. ===
{{Main|Yellowstone National Park|List of Yellowstone geothermal features|Geothermal areas of Yellowstone}}
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in [[Wyoming]], USA, with small portions in [[Montana]] and [[Idaho]].<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm "Yellowstone geysers"] nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20</ref> Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser ([[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Norris Geyser Basin]]).
=== Valley of Geysers, Russia ===
[[File:Kamchatka Valley of Geysers.webm|thumb|right|120px|Breathing Geyser Double, Valley of Geysers in [[Kamchatka Krai]]]]
{{Main|Valley of Geysers}}
The Valley of Geysers ({{lang-ru|Долина гейзеров}}) located in the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] of [[Russia]] is the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by [[Tatyana Ustinova]] in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous [[volcano|volcanic]] activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.<ref name="uweb" /> On June 3, 2007, a massive [[mudflow]] influenced two thirds of the valley.<ref name="NG">{{cite news | first=Aalok | last=Mehta | title=Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605-geyser-valley.html | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | date=2008-04-16 | access-date=2007-06-07 }}</ref> It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.<ref>{{cite news |first=Luke |last=Harding |title=Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka's Valley of Geysers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html |work=[[Guardian Unlimited]] |date=2007-06-05 |access-date=2008-04-16 }}</ref> Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. [[Velikan Geyser]], one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently{{quantify|date=January 2019}} been observed to be active.<ref>{{cite news|first=Igor |last=Shpilenok|title=June 2007 Special release – The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers |url=http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm|date=2007-06-09|access-date=2008-04-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm |archive-date = April 12, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== El Tatio, Chile ===
[[File:ElTatioMovie.ogg|alt=Video of bubbling geyser, with sound.|thumb|right|A geyser bubbling at [[El Tatio]] geyser field]]
{{Main|El Tatio}}
The name "El Tatio" comes from the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] word for ''oven''. El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the [[Andes]] surrounded by many active volcanoes in [[Chile]], South America at around {{convert|4200|m}} above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only {{convert|6|m|spell=in}} high, but with steam columns that can be over {{convert|20|m}} high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about {{convert|750|mm}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003</ref>
=== Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand ===
{{Main|Taupō Volcanic Zone}}
The Taupō Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's [[North Island]]. It is {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} long by {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|wide|0}} and lies over a [[subduction]] zone in the Earth's crust. [[Mount Ruapehu]] marks its southwestern end, while the submarine [[Whakatāne seamount]] ({{convert|85|km|disp=or|abbr=on}} beyond [[Whakaari / White Island]]) is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gamble |first1=J. A. |first2=I. C. |last2=Wright |first3=J. A. |last3=Baker |doi=10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588 |year=1993 |title=Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=417–435 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122075312/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php |archive-date=2008-11-22 }}</ref> Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to [[Geothermal power|geothermal]] developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist.
In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the [[Waimangu Geyser]] existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a [[landslide]] changed the local [[water table]]. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach {{convert|160|m}} and some superbursts are known to have reached {{convert|500|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /> Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as {{convert|5|km|mi|spell=in}} thick. Beneath this lies a film of [[magma]] {{convert|50|km|-1}} wide and {{convert|160|km|-1}} long.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html Central North Island sitting on magma film] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107010456/http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html |date=2009-01-07 }} Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16</ref>
=== Iceland ===
{{Main|Iceland}}
Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some of the most famous geysers in the world. There are around 20–29 active geysers in the country as well as numerous formerly active geysers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wondermondo.com/geysers-of-iceland/|title=Geysers of Iceland|date=5 October 2019|access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref> Icelandic geysers are distributed in the zone stretching from south-west to north-east, along the boundary between the [[Eurasian Plate]] and the [[North American Plate]]. Most of the Icelandic geysers are comparatively short-lived, it is also characteristic that many geysers here are reactivated or newly created after earthquakes, becoming dormant or extinct after some years or some decades.
Two most prominent geysers of Iceland are located in [[Haukadalur]]. ''[[The Great Geysir]]'', which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word ''[[wiktionary:geyser|geyser]]''. By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby [[Strokkur]] geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some {{convert|30|m}}.<ref name="uweb" /><ref>Gardner Servian, Solveig [http://website.lineone.net/~polar.publishing/geysersoficeland.htm "Geysers of Iceland"] Retrieved on 2008-04-16</ref>
Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. Some former geysers have developed historical farms, which benefitted from the use of the hot water since medieval times.
=== Extinct and dormant geyser fields ===
There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]—[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs, Nevada|Steamboat Springs]]—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.<ref name="uweb" />
Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]].<ref>[http://www.whakarewarewa.com/ "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village"] Retrieved 2008-04-04</ref> Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the construction of the hydroelectric [[Ohakuri dam]] in 1961.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/Environment/Natural-resources/Geothermal/Geothermal-systems-map/Orakeikorako/|title=Orakeikorako|website=www.waikatoregion.govt.nz|access-date=2020-05-23}}</ref> The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yellowstone Supervolcano Could Be an Energy Source. But Should It?|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-yellowstone-supervolcano-geothermal-energy-debate-iceland-hawaii/|date=2018-08-08|website=Science|language=en|access-date=2020-05-23}}</ref> The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera|1886 eruption]] of [[Mount Tarawera]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=1886 Mt Tarawera Eruption|url=https://www.waimangu.co.nz/history/eruption-birth-of-waimangu|last=Valley|first=Waimangu Volcanic|website=Waimangu Volcanic Valley|language=en|access-date=2020-05-23|archive-date=2020-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515214651/https://www.waimangu.co.nz/history/eruption-birth-of-waimangu|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Klemetti|first=Erik|date=2011-02-10|title=The 1886 Eruption of Mt. Tarawera, New Zealand|language=en-US|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/02/the-1886-eruption-of-mt-tarawera-new-zealand/|access-date=2020-05-23|issn=1059-1028}}</ref>
== Misnamed geysers ==
There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.
=== Artificial geysers ===
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book ''A Guide to Geyser Gazing'' (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".<ref>Jones, Wyoming [http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm "Old Faithful Geyser of California"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607050719/http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm |date=2019-06-07 }} ''WyoJones' Geyser Pages'' Retrieved on 2008-03-31</ref>
In the case of the Big Mine Run Geyser in [[Ashland, Pennsylvania]], the heat powering the geyser (which erupts from an abandoned mine vent) comes not from geothermal power, but from the long-simmering [[Centralia mine fire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wnep.com/article/news/local/schuylkill-county/getting-to-the-bottom-of-this-gushing-geyser-in-schuylkill-county/523-eede19c1-008d-4987-bfe1-9ee658b41dab|title=Getting to the Bottom of This Gushing Geyser in Schuylkill County|work=WNEP-TV|date=June 17, 2018|first=Jessica|last=Albert|access-date=December 7, 2021}}</ref>
=== Perpetual spouter ===
This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.<ref>WyoJones [http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm "Thermal Feature Definitions"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721165037/http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm |date=2019-07-21 }} ''WyoJones'' Retrieved on 2008-04-03</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Blog without any cited source references|date=August 2023}}
== Commercialization ==
[[File:Strokkur, Iceland.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting.|The [[Strokkur|geyser Strokkur]] in Iceland – a tourist spot.]]
Geysers are used for various activities such as [[electricity]] generation, heating and [[tourism]]. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near [[Calistoga, California]] through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers-Calistoga KGRA |publisher=DOE–SciTech |date=14 July 1980 |doi=10.2172/6817678 |osti = 6817678|last1=O'Banion |first1=K. |last2=Hall |first2=C. |s2cid=129626036 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1195594/ }}</ref> The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.<ref>Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA] osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12</ref>
== Cryogeysers ==
{{further|Cryovolcano}}
There are many bodies in the [[Solar System]] where jet-like eruptions, often termed '''cryogeysers''' (''cryo'' meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on [[Earth]], these represent eruptions of [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]], together with [[Entrainment (physical geography)|entrained]] dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the [[Geyser#Eruptions|physical processes involved]] are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble [[fumarole]]s.
* '''Enceladus'''
: Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[nitrogen]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[silicate]]s), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the "[[Tiger Stripes (Enceladus)|tiger stripes]]" in the south polar region of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Enceladus]] by the ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by [[Tidal acceleration#Tidal heating|tidal heating]] resulting from [[orbital eccentricity]] due to a 2:1 mean-motion [[orbital resonance]] with the moon [[Dione (moon)|Dione]].<ref name="cold-geyser-model" /><ref name="Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1123013| last1 = Porco| first1 = C. C.| author-link1 = Carolyn Porco| last2 = Helfenstein| first2 = P.| last3 = Thomas| first3 = P. C.| last4 = Ingersoll| first4 = A. P.| last5 = Wisdom| first5 = J.| last6 = West| first6 = R.| last7 = Neukum| first7 = G.| last8 = Denk| first8 = T.| last9 = Wagner| first9 = R.| s2cid = 6976648| date = 10 March 2006| title = Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus| journal = Science| volume = 311| issue = 5766| pages = 1393–1401| pmid = 16527964| bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1393P| url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36593/| ref = {{sfnRef|Porco Helfenstein et al. 2006}}}}</ref>
* '''Europa'''
: In December 2013, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] detected [[vapor|water vapor plumes]] above the south polar region of [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of Jupiter's [[Galilean moon]]s. It is thought that Europa's [[lineae]] might be venting this water vapor into space, caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web|last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |work=NASA}}</ref>
* '''Mars'''
: Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the [[Climate of Mars#Polar caps|south polar cap]] of [[Mars]] each spring. Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the [[dry ice]], representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a [[Martian spiders|spider-like pattern of grooves]] created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.<ref name = "THEMIS">{{cite web
| last = Burnham
| first = Robert
| title = Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars
| work = [[Arizona State University]] web site
| date = 2006-08-16
| url = http://www.asu.edu/news/stories/200608/20060818_marsplumes.htm
| access-date = 2009-08-29}}</ref>
* '''Triton'''
: One of the great surprises of the ''[[Voyager 2]]'' flyby of [[Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of [[Triton (moon)#Cryovolcanism|eruptions]] on its moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.<ref>{{cite web
| date = June 1, 2005
| title = Triton (Voyager)
| publisher = NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission)
| url = http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/neptune_triton.html
| access-date = 2008-04-03
}}</ref> These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's [[subsolar point]], indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid [[greenhouse effect]]", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. ''Voyager''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.<ref name="harv">Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1990LPI....21..633K&letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=633&epage=633&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf "Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton"] ''[[Harvard University|Harvard]]'' Retrieved 2008-04-08</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|align = center
|width1 = 160
|width2 = 190
|width3 = 215
|image1 = Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg
|image2 = Fountains of Enceladus PIA07758.jpg
|image3 = Enceladus Cold Geyser Model.svg
|caption1 = Dark streaks deposited by geysers on [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]
|caption2 = Jets thought to be geysers erupting from [[Enceladus]]{{'}} subsurface
|caption3 = The Cold Geyser Model – a proposed explanation for cryovolcanism<ref name="cold-geyser-model">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia07799.html |work=NASA |title=Enceladus "Cold Geyser" Model |date=3 September 2006}}</ref>
}}
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Earth sciences|Geology}}
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Cold-water geyser}}
* {{annotated link|Earliest known life forms}}
* {{annotated link|Hot spring}}
* {{annotated link|Hydrothermal explosion}}
* {{annotated link|Ice volcano}}
* {{annotated link|List of geysers}}
* {{annotated link|Mudpot}}
* {{annotated link|Geothermal activity}}
{{div col end}}
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
== References ==
* Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. {{ISBN|0-87081-365-X}}
* [[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.
* [[Glennon, J.A.]] (2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070902032519/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm About Geysers]'', University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.
* Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789–790.
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-6084-4|title=Geysers and Geothermal Energy|year=1980|last1=Rinehart|first1=John S.|isbn=978-1-4612-6086-8}}
* Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. {{ISBN|0-943972-09-4}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.250.4979.410|pmid=17793016|title=Triton's Geyser-Like Plumes: Discovery and Basic Characterization|journal=Science|volume=250|issue=4979|pages=410–415|year=1990|last1=Soderblom|first1=L. A.|last2=Kieffer|first2=S. W.|last3=Becker|first3=T. L.|last4=Brown|first4=R. H.|last5=Cook|first5=A. F.|last6=Hansen|first6=C. J.|last7=Johnson|first7=T. V.|last8=Kirk|first8=R. L.|last9=Shoemaker|first9=E. M.|bibcode=1990Sci...250..410S|s2cid=1948948}}
* Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) ''Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park'', Publ. 466. Carnegie Institution of Washington, [[Washington, D.C.]], 525 p.
* Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: ''Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland'', Publ. 587. [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], Washington, D.C., 174 p.
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1029/JB077i002p00342|title=Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in Earth tidal forces, barometric pressure, and tectonic stresses|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=77|issue=2|pages=342–350|year=1972|last1=Rinehart|first1=John S.|bibcode=1972JGR....77..342R}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.177.4046.346|pmid=17813197|title=18.6-Year Earth Tide Regulates Geyser Activity|journal=Science|volume=177|issue=4046|pages=346–347|year=1972|last1=Rinehart|first1=J. S.|bibcode=1972Sci...177..346R|s2cid=33025115}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-6084-4|title=Geysers and Geothermal Energy|year=1980|last1=Rinehart|first1=John S.|isbn=978-1-4612-6086-8}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.257.5075.1363|pmid=17738277|title=Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes|journal=Science|volume=257|issue=5075|pages=1363–1368|year=1992|last1=Silver|first1=P. G.|last2=Valette-Silver|first2=N. J.|bibcode=1992Sci...257.1363S|s2cid=3718672}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2475/ajs.265.8.641|title=Some principles of geyser activity, mainly from Steamboat Springs, Nevada|journal=American Journal of Science|volume=265|issue=8|pages=641–684|year=1967|last1=White|first1=D. E.|bibcode=1967AmJS..265..641W|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0734-9750(00)00041-0|pmid=14538100|title=Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology|journal=Biotechnology Advances|volume=18|issue=5|pages=355–383|year=2000|last1=Bhat|first1=M.K.}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0960-8524(03)00033-6|pmid=12676497|title=Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: A review|journal=Bioresource Technology|volume=89|pages=17–34|year=2003|last1=Haki|first1=G.|issue=1}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1128/MMBR.65.1.1-43.2001|pmid=11238984|title=Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=65|pages=1–43|year=2001|last1=Vieille|first1=C.|last2=Zeikus|first2=G. J.|issue=1|pmc=99017|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0167-7799(02)02073-5|pmid=12443873|title=The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=20|issue=12|pages=515–521|year=2002|last1=Schiraldi|first1=Chiara|last2=De Rosa|first2=Mario}}
* Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. ''An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus.'' Applied and Environmental Microbiology. '''1996''', 62(8), 3047–3049.
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00446-1|pmid=12095262|title=The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase, at 1.8Å Resolution|journal=Journal of Molecular Biology|volume=320|issue=4|pages=883–897|year=2002|last1=Crennell|first1=Susan J.|last2=Hreggvidsson|first2=Gudmundur O.|last3=Nordberg Karlsson|first3=Eva}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(03)00467-4|pmid=12767825|title=Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanase from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanistic Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms|journal=Journal of Molecular Biology|volume=329|issue=3|pages=403–410|year=2003|last1=Hirvonen|first1=Mika|last2=Papageorgiou|first2=Anastassios C.}}
* Iogen doubles [https://web.archive.org/web/20040903203044/http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html EcoEthanol Capacity]. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, '''2003''').
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0032-9592(02)00237-6|title=Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase|journal=Process Biochemistry|volume=38|issue=7|pages=1063–1067|year=2003|last1=Pèlach|first1=M.A|last2=Pastor|first2=F.J|last3=Puig|first3=J.|last4=Vilaseca|first4=F.|last5=Mutjé|first5=P.}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2003.12.009|title=Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases|journal=Industrial Crops and Products|volume=20|pages=11–21|year=2004|last1=Dienes|first1=D.|last2=Egyházi|first2=A.|last3=Réczey|first3=K.}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00315-7|pmid=11500222|title=Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment|journal=Journal of Biotechnology|volume=89|issue=2–3|pages=271–279|year=2001|last1=Csiszár|first1=Emı́lia|last2=Losonczi|first2=Anita|last3=Szakács|first3=George|last4=Rusznák|first4=István|last5=Bezúr|first5=László|last6=Reicher|first6=Johanna}}
* Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., ''Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories'' ([[New York City|New York]]: John Wiley & Sons, '''1981'''), 26.
* Harsh K. Gupta, ''Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative'' ([[Amsterdam]]: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, '''1980'''), 186.
* The Earth Explored: ''Geothermal Energy'', 19857 videocassette.
* Brimner, Larry Dane. ''Geysers''. New York: Children's Press, '''2000'''.
* Downs, Sandra. ''Earth's Fiery Fury.'' Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, '''2000'''.
* Gallant, Roy A. ''Geysers: When Earth Roars.'' New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, '''1997'''.
* {{Cite PSM |last=LeConte |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph LeConte |wstitle=Geysers and How They are Explained|month-and-year=February 1878|volume=12 }}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Geyser}}
{{AmCyc Poster|Geysers}}
* [http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]
* [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
* [http://www.geysertimes.org GeyserTimes.org]
* [http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040207004906/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
* [http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]
* [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070416140350/http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist]
* [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html ''Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems'' by Meg Streepey]
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1 National Geographic]
* {{Cite EB9|wstitle=Geysers|volume=10|pages=556-558 |short=x}}
{{Earth's landforms}}
{{Geysers}}
{{Rivers, streams and springs}}
{{Good article}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Geysers| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]
[[Category:Springs (hydrology)]]
[[Category:Bodies of water]]' |
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about volcanic geysers. For CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>-driven geysers, see <a href="/wiki/Cold-water_geyser" title="Cold-water geyser">Cold-water geyser</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Geyser_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Geyser (disambiguation)">Geyser (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Natural explosive eruption of hot water</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066479718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1095843157">.mw-parser-output .ib-landform{width:23em;border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform td,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedrow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedrow .infobox-label{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .maptable{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .infobox-below{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform .infobox-subheader{background-color:#e7dcc3;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-native{font-weight:normal;padding-top:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-other-name{font-size:78%}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-official{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-caption{padding:0.3em 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-caption-link{padding:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-nickname{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-landform-fn{font-weight:normal;display:inline}</style><table class="infobox ib-landform vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above"><div class="fn org">Geyser</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="category"><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_activity" title="Geothermal activity">Geothermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">spring</a></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Strokkur_geyser_eruption,_close-up_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg/300px-Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg/450px-Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg/600px-Strokkur_geyser_eruption%2C_close-up_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2977" data-file-height="1983" /></a></span><div class="ib-landform-caption"><a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a> geyser, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formed by</th><td class="infobox-data">Particular hydrogeological conditions that exist in a few places on Earth</td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geyser_animation.gif/330px-Geyser_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geyser_animation.gif/495px-Geyser_animation.gif 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Geyser_animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>A cross-section of a geyser in action</figcaption></figure>
<p>A <b>geyser</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><small><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </small><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">spring</a> characterized by an intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogeological">hydrogeological</a> conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth.
</p><p>Generally all geyser field sites are located near active <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Help:Convert_messages#invalid_number" title="Help:Convert messages"><span title="Convert: Value "2000.0987654321`123456789876543212345678..." must be a number">convert: invalid number</span></a></i>]</sup><span class="error"></span> where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent.
</p><p>A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposition</a> within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> influences, and human intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as <a href="#Cryogeysers">cryogeysers</a>, have been observed on several of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a> of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> eruptions have been observed on <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a>.
</p><p>There are also signs of <a href="/wiki/Geysers_on_Mars" title="Geysers on Mars">carbon dioxide eruptions</a> from the southern polar ice cap of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. In the case of Enceladus, the plumes are believed to be driven by internal energy. In the cases of the venting on Mars and Triton, the activity may be a result of solar heating via a solid-state <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. In all three cases, there is no evidence of the subsurface hydrological system which differentiates terrestrial geysers from other sorts of venting, such as <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumaroles</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Form_and_function"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Form and function</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Eruptions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Eruptions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#General_categorization"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">General categorization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Biology"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Biology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Major_geyser_fields_and_their_distribution"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Major geyser fields and their distribution</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Yellowstone_National_Park,_U.S."><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Yellowstone National Park, U.S.</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Valley_of_Geysers,_Russia"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Valley of Geysers, Russia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#El_Tatio,_Chile"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">El Tatio, Chile</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Taupō_Volcanic_Zone,_New_Zealand"><span class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Iceland"><span class="tocnumber">6.5</span> <span class="toctext">Iceland</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Extinct_and_dormant_geyser_fields"><span class="tocnumber">6.6</span> <span class="toctext">Extinct and dormant geyser fields</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Misnamed_geysers"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Misnamed geysers</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Artificial_geysers"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Artificial geysers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Perpetual_spouter"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Perpetual spouter</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Commercialization"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Commercialization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Cryogeysers"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Cryogeysers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The term 'geyser' in English dates back to the late 18th century and comes from <a href="/wiki/Geysir" title="Geysir">Geysir</a>, which is a geyser in <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a></sup> Its name means "one who gushes".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Form_and_function">Form and function</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Form and function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Steamboat_Geyser_in_Yellowretardstone.jpg" class="new" title="File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowretardstone.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="250">Water and steam erupting from rocky, barren ground. Fir trees in the background.</span></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Geyser" title="Steamboat Geyser">Steamboat Geyser</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-6">[6]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain: intense heat, water, and a plumbing system.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-6">[6]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The heat needed for geyser formation comes from <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system (made of <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">fractures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_fissure" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground fissure">fissures</a>, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities) is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-6">[6]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Eruptions">Eruptions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eruptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 300px;">
<tbody><tr>
<td>
<table style="background: white; white-space: nowrap;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2">
<tbody><tr>
<td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="614" /></a></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="614" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg/150px-Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg/225px-Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg/300px-Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="614" /></a></span>
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</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur geyser</a> erupting (clockwise from top left)
<ol><li>Steam rises from heated water</li>
<li>Pulses of water swell upward</li>
<li>Surface is broken</li>
<li>Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe</li></ol>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>. In non-eruptive hot springs, the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermally</a> heated water then rises back toward the surface by <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> through porous and fractured rocks, while in geysers, the water instead is explosively forced upwards by the high pressure created when water boils below. Geysers also differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convective cooling</a> of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a <a href="/wiki/Pressure_cooker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure cooker">pressure cooker</a>, allowing the water in the reservoir to become <a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">superheated</a>, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins, forcing steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>, boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.<sup id="cite_ref-wyo_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyo-6">[6]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called <a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">geyserite</a> found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite, mostly <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a> (SiO<sub>2</sub>), is dissolved from the rocks and is deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not leak out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; <a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a> in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while <a href="/wiki/Grand_Geyser" title="Grand Geyser">Grand Geyser</a> in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-leekry_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leekry-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="General_categorization">General categorization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: General categorization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There are two types of geysers: <i>fountain geysers</i> which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and <i>cone geysers</i> which erupt from cones or mounds of <a href="/wiki/Siliceous_sinter" class="mw-redirect" title="Siliceous sinter">siliceous sinter</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">geyserite</a>), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. <a href="/wiki/Old_Faithful_Geyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Faithful Geyser">Old Faithful</a>, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Geyser" title="Grand Geyser">Grand Geyser</a>, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although <a href="/wiki/Geysir" title="Geysir">Geysir</a> in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fountain_geyser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fountain_geyser.jpg/202px-Fountain_geyser.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fountain_geyser.jpg/303px-Fountain_geyser.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fountain_geyser.jpg/404px-Fountain_geyser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1329" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg/180px-Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg/270px-Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg/360px-Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2580" data-file-height="1932" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Geyser" title="Fountain Geyser">Fountain Geyser</a> erupting from the pool (left) and <a href="/wiki/Old_Faithful_geyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Faithful geyser">Old Faithful geyser</a> (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> erupts approximately every 91 minutes (right).</div></div></div></div>
<p>There are many volcanic areas in the world that have <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mud_pot" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud pot">mud pots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumaroles</a>, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power</a> plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a> soaps to the water.<sup id="cite_ref-Pasvanoglu_etal_2000_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pasvanoglu_etal_2000-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Biology">Biology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">Hyperthermophile</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_(view_from_the_south).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_%28view_from_the_south%29.jpg/280px-Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_%28view_from_the_south%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_%28view_from_the_south%29.jpg/420px-Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_%28view_from_the_south%29.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_%28view_from_the_south%29.jpg/560px-Aerial_image_of_Grand_Prismatic_Spring_%28view_from_the_south%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="3400" /></a><figcaption>Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prismatic_Spring" title="Grand Prismatic Spring">Grand Prismatic Spring</a>, Yellowstone National Park</figcaption></figure>
<p>The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitats</a>) in the form of <a href="/wiki/Thermophiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophiles">thermophilic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. No known <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryote</a> can survive over 60 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (140 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-bot_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bot-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C maximum (163 °F)—the upper limit for the survival of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, as the structure of key cellular <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C average (131 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-bot_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bot-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">water</a>. Dozens of such bacteria are known.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
<a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophiles</a> prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C (122 to 158 °F), whilst <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">hyperthermophiles</a> grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C (176 to 230 °F). As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a>, that are important in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> for example in manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergents</a> (by the use of heat-stable enzymes <a href="/wiki/Lipase" title="Lipase">lipases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pullulanase" title="Pullulanase">pullulanases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a>), and fermentation products (for example <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is <i><a href="/wiki/Thermus_aquaticus" title="Thermus aquaticus">Thermus aquaticus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_geyser_fields_and_their_distribution">Major geyser fields and their distribution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Major geyser fields and their distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_geyser_distribution.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map showing that locations of geysers tend to cluster in specific areas of the world." src="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/World_geyser_distribution.gif/300px-World_geyser_distribution.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/World_geyser_distribution.gif/450px-World_geyser_distribution.gif 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/World_geyser_distribution.gif/600px-World_geyser_distribution.gif 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of major geysers in the world.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>, and fortuitous <a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a>. The combination exists in few places on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uweb_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Yellowstone_National_Park.2C_U.S."></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Yellowstone_National_Park,_U.S.">Yellowstone National Park, U.S.</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Yellowstone National Park, U.S."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Yellowstone_geothermal_features" title="List of Yellowstone geothermal features">List of Yellowstone geothermal features</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_areas_of_Yellowstone" title="Geothermal areas of Yellowstone">Geothermal areas of Yellowstone</a></div>
<p>Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>, USA, with small portions in <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser (<a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Geyser" title="Steamboat Geyser">Steamboat Geyser</a> in <a href="/wiki/Norris_Geyser_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Norris Geyser Basin">Norris Geyser Basin</a>).
</p>
<h3><span id="Valley_of_Geysers.2C_Russia"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Valley_of_Geysers,_Russia">Valley of Geysers, Russia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Valley of Geysers, Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/120px--Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="213" data-durationhint="11" data-mwtitle="Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm"><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="270" data-height="480" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="406" data-height="720" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="608" data-height="1080" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="608" data-height="1080" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="136" data-height="240" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="202" data-height="360" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm/Kamchatka_Valley_of_Geysers.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="202" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Breathing Geyser Double, Valley of Geysers in <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Krai" title="Kamchatka Krai">Kamchatka Krai</a></figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Geysers" title="Valley of Geysers">Valley of Geysers</a></div>
<p>The Valley of Geysers (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Долина гейзеров</span>) located in the <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula" title="Kamchatka Peninsula">Kamchatka Peninsula</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> is the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by <a href="/wiki/Tatyana_Ustinova" title="Tatyana Ustinova">Tatyana Ustinova</a> in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-18">[18]</a></sup> On June 3, 2007, a massive <a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">mudflow</a> influenced two thirds of the valley.<sup id="cite_ref-NG_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NG-20">[20]</a></sup> It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Velikan_Geyser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Velikan Geyser (page does not exist)">Velikan Geyser</a>, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (January 2019)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> been observed to be active.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="El_Tatio.2C_Chile"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="El_Tatio,_Chile">El Tatio, Chile</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: El Tatio, Chile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/220px--ElTatioMovie.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="ElTatioMovie.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:ElTatioMovie.ogv"><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv/ElTatioMovie.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="/media/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/ElTatioMovie.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>A geyser bubbling at <a href="/wiki/El_Tatio" title="El Tatio">El Tatio</a> geyser field</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/El_Tatio" title="El Tatio">El Tatio</a></div>
<p>The name "El Tatio" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a> word for <i>oven</i>. El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> surrounded by many active volcanoes in <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, South America at around 4,200 metres (13,800 ft) above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only six metres (20 ft) high, but with steam columns that can be over 20 metres (66 ft) high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about 750 millimetres (30 in).<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Taup.C5.8D_Volcanic_Zone.2C_New_Zealand"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Taupō_Volcanic_Zone,_New_Zealand">Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taup%C5%8D_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupō Volcanic Zone">Taupō Volcanic Zone</a></div>
<p>The Taupō Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a>. It is 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by 50 km wide (31 mi) and lies over a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone in the Earth's crust. <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ruapehu" title="Mount Ruapehu">Mount Ruapehu</a> marks its southwestern end, while the submarine <a href="/wiki/Whakat%C4%81ne_seamount" class="mw-redirect" title="Whakatāne seamount">Whakatāne seamount</a> (85 km or 53 mi beyond <a href="/wiki/Whakaari_/_White_Island" title="Whakaari / White Island">Whakaari / White Island</a>) is considered its northeastern limit.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal</a> developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist.
</p><p>In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the <a href="/wiki/Waimangu_Geyser" title="Waimangu Geyser">Waimangu Geyser</a> existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> changed the local <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach 160 metres (520 ft) and some superbursts are known to have reached 500 metres (1,600 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-18">[18]</a></sup> Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as five kilometres (3.1 mi) thick. Beneath this lies a film of <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> 50 kilometres (30 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (100 mi) long.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Iceland">Iceland</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Iceland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></div>
<p>Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some of the most famous geysers in the world. There are around 20–29 active geysers in the country as well as numerous formerly active geysers.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> Icelandic geysers are distributed in the zone stretching from south-west to north-east, along the boundary between the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Plate" title="North American Plate">North American Plate</a>. Most of the Icelandic geysers are comparatively short-lived, it is also characteristic that many geysers here are reactivated or newly created after earthquakes, becoming dormant or extinct after some years or some decades.
</p><p>Two most prominent geysers of Iceland are located in <a href="/wiki/Haukadalur" title="Haukadalur">Haukadalur</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Geysir" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Geysir">The Great Geysir</a></i>, which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/geyser" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:geyser">geyser</a></i>. By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby <a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a> geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some 30 metres (98 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. Some former geysers have developed historical farms, which benefitted from the use of the hot water since medieval times.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Extinct_and_dormant_geyser_fields">Extinct and dormant geyser fields</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Extinct and dormant geyser fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>There used to be two large geysers fields in <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>—<a href="/wiki/Beowawe,_Nevada" title="Beowawe, Nevada">Beowawe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Springs,_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Steamboat Springs, Nevada">Steamboat Springs</a>—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.<sup id="cite_ref-uweb_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uweb-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is <a href="/wiki/Whakarewarewa" title="Whakarewarewa">Whakarewarewa</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rotorua" title="Rotorua">Rotorua</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Two thirds of the geysers at <a href="/wiki/Orakei_Korako" title="Orakei Korako">Orakei Korako</a> were flooded by the construction of the hydroelectric <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohakuri_dam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohakuri dam (page does not exist)">Ohakuri dam</a> in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Wairakei" title="Wairakei">Wairakei</a> field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rotomahana" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotomahana">Rotomahana</a> field was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/1886_eruption_of_Mount_Tarawera" title="1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera">1886 eruption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tarawera" title="Mount Tarawera">Mount Tarawera</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Misnamed_geysers">Misnamed geysers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Misnamed geysers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Artificial_geysers">Artificial geysers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Artificial geysers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called <i>artificial geysers</i>, technically known as <i>erupting geothermal wells</i>, are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in <a href="/wiki/Calistoga,_California" title="Calistoga, California">Calistoga, California</a>, is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book <i>A Guide to Geyser Gazing</i> (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the case of the Big Mine Run Geyser in <a href="/wiki/Ashland,_Pennsylvania" title="Ashland, Pennsylvania">Ashland, Pennsylvania</a>, the heat powering the geyser (which erupts from an abandoned mine vent) comes not from geothermal power, but from the long-simmering <a href="/wiki/Centralia_mine_fire" title="Centralia mine fire">Centralia mine fire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Perpetual_spouter">Perpetual spouter</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Perpetual spouter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Blog without any cited source references (August 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Commercialization">Commercialization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Commercialization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strokkur,_Iceland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting." src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Strokkur%2C_Iceland.jpg/170px-Strokkur%2C_Iceland.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Strokkur%2C_Iceland.jpg/255px-Strokkur%2C_Iceland.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Strokkur%2C_Iceland.jpg/340px-Strokkur%2C_Iceland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">geyser Strokkur</a> in Iceland – a tourist spot.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Geysers are used for various activities such as <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> generation, heating and <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near <a href="/wiki/Calistoga,_California" title="Calistoga, California">Calistoga, California</a> through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Cryogeysers">Cryogeysers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cryogeysers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cryovolcano" title="Cryovolcano">Cryovolcano</a></div>
<p>There are many bodies in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> where jet-like eruptions, often termed <b>cryogeysers</b> (<i>cryo</i> meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, these represent eruptions of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)" title="Volatile (astrogeology)">volatiles</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Entrainment_(physical_geography)" title="Entrainment (physical geography)">entrained</a> dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Eruptions">physical processes involved</a> are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumaroles</a>.
</p>
<ul><li><b>Enceladus</b></li></ul>
<dl><dd>Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicates</a>), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the "<a href="/wiki/Tiger_Stripes_(Enceladus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiger Stripes (Enceladus)">tiger stripes</a>" in the south polar region of <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a> by the <i><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini</a></i> orbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by <a href="/wiki/Tidal_acceleration#Tidal_heating" title="Tidal acceleration">tidal heating</a> resulting from <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">orbital eccentricity</a> due to a 2:1 mean-motion <a href="/wiki/Orbital_resonance" title="Orbital resonance">orbital resonance</a> with the moon <a href="/wiki/Dione_(moon)" title="Dione (moon)">Dione</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cold-geyser-model_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cold-geyser-model-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Porco_Helfenstein_et_al._2006_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porco_Helfenstein_et_al._2006-39">[39]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<ul><li><b>Europa</b></li></ul>
<dl><dd>In December 2013, the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> detected <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">water vapor plumes</a> above the south polar region of <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, one of Jupiter's <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moon" class="mw-redirect" title="Galilean moon">Galilean moons</a>. It is thought that Europa's <a href="/wiki/Lineae" title="Lineae">lineae</a> might be venting this water vapor into space, caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20131212-EU_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20131212-EU-40">[40]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<ul><li><b>Mars</b></li></ul>
<dl><dd>Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mars#Polar_caps" title="Climate of Mars">south polar cap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> each spring. Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a>, representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a <a href="/wiki/Martian_spiders" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian spiders">spider-like pattern of grooves</a> created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.<sup id="cite_ref-THEMIS_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THEMIS-41">[41]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<ul><li><b>Triton</b></li></ul>
<dl><dd>One of the great surprises of the <i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a></i> flyby of <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> in 1989 was the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)#Cryovolcanism" title="Triton (moon)">eruptions</a> on its moon <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a>. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's <a href="/wiki/Subsolar_point" title="Subsolar point">subsolar point</a>, indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-<a href="/wiki/Transparency_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparency (optics)">transparent</a> layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. <i>Voyager</i>'s images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.<sup id="cite_ref-harv_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harv-43">[43]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:577px;max-width:577px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg/160px-Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg/240px-Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg/320px-Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Dark streaks deposited by geysers on <a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg/190px-Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg/285px-Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg/380px-Fountains_of_Enceladus_PIA07758.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1019" data-file-height="863" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Jets thought to be geysers erupting from <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> subsurface</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:217px;max-width:217px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg/215px-Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="215" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg/323px-Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg.png 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg/430px-Enceladus_Cold_Geyser_Model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2880" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Cold Geyser Model – a proposed explanation for cryovolcanism<sup id="cite_ref-cold-geyser-model_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cold-geyser-model-38">[38]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-water_geyser" title="Cold-water geyser">Cold-water geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a> – Putative fossilized microorganisms found near hydrothermal vents</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">Hot spring</a> – Spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_explosion" title="Hydrothermal explosion">Hydrothermal explosion</a> – Explosion of superheated ground water converting to steam</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ice_volcano" title="Ice volcano">Ice volcano</a> – Wave-driven mound of ice formed on terrestrial lakes</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geysers" title="List of geysers">List of geysers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mudpot" title="Mudpot">Mudpot</a> – Hot spring, or fumarole, with limited water</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_activity" title="Geothermal activity">Geothermal activity</a> – Activity resulting from underground heat</li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/media/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser">"Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+geyser+noun+from+Cambridge+Dictionary+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fbritish%2Fgeyser%3Fq%3Dgeyser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130609235600/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser">"geyser | Definition of geyser in English by Oxford Dictionaries"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionaries | English</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser">the original</a> on June 9, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionaries+%7C+English&rft.atitle=geyser+%7C+Definition+of+geyser+in+English+by+Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fgeyser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryan, T.S. 1995</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190705210214/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser">"geyser | Definition of geyser in English by Lexico Dictionaries"</a>. <i>Lexico Dictionaries | English</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geyser">the original</a> on July 5, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lexico+Dictionaries+%7C+English&rft.atitle=geyser+%7C+Definition+of+geyser+in+English+by+Lexico+Dictionaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fen%2Fdefinition%2Fgeyser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/geyser">"geyser | Origin and meaning of geyser by Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.etymonline.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.etymonline.com&rft.atitle=geyser+%7C+Origin+and+meaning+of+geyser+by+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fgeyser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-wyo-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wyo_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150422214534/http://wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm">How geysers form</a> Gregory L.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFErickson2014" class="citation book cs1">Erickson, Jon (2014-05-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ljXMs4rkv3gC&q=heat+for+geyser+formation+comes+from+near+surface+magma&pg=PA127"><i>Quakes, Eruptions, and Other Geologic Cataclysms: Revealing the Earth's Hazards</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438109695" title="Special:BookSources/9781438109695"><bdi>9781438109695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quakes%2C+Eruptions%2C+and+Other+Geologic+Cataclysms%3A+Revealing+the+Earth%27s+Hazards&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.isbn=9781438109695&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DljXMs4rkv3gC%26q%3Dheat%2Bfor%2Bgeyser%2Bformation%2Bcomes%2Bfrom%2Bnear%2Bsurface%2Bmagma%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-leekry-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leekry_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKrystek" class="citation web cs1">Krystek, Lee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm">"Weird Geology: Geysers]"</a>. Museum of Unnatural Mystery<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weird+Geology%3A+Geysers%5D&rft.pub=Museum+of+Unnatural+Mystery&rft.aulast=Krystek&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unmuseum.org%2Fgeysers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLewin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Lewin, Sarah (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/instant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over">"Instant Egghead: How do geysers erupt over and over?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <b>312</b> (5): 27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0515-27">10.1038/scientificamerican0515-27</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26336706">26336706</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-05-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Instant+Egghead%3A+How+do+geysers+erupt+over+and+over%3F&rft.volume=312&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0515-27&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26336706&rft.aulast=Lewin&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Finstant-egghead-how-do-geysers-erupt-over-and-over&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071116174629/http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm">"Yellowstone thermal features"</a>. Yahoo!. 2008-04-02. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com/dmonteit/ov_quick_guide.htm">the original</a> on November 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yellowstone+thermal+features&rft.pub=Yahoo%21&rft.date=2008-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2Fdmonteit%2Fov_quick_guide.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Brown, Sabrina (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geoscidiss/122"><i>Diatom-inferred records of paleolimnological variability and continental hydrothermal activity in Yellowstone National Park, USA</i></a> (PhD dissertation). University of Nebraska–Lincoln.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Diatom-inferred+records+of+paleolimnological+variability+and+continental+hydrothermal+activity+in+Yellowstone+National+Park%2C+USA&rft.inst=University+of+Nebraska%E2%80%93Lincoln&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Sabrina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2Fgeoscidiss%2F122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Pasvanoglu_etal_2000-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pasvanoglu_etal_2000_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPasvanogluKristmannsdóttirBjörnssonTorfason2000" class="citation journal cs1">Pasvanoglu, S.; Kristmannsdóttir, H.; Björnsson, S.; Torfason, H. (2000). "Geochemical Study of the Geysir Geothermal Field in Haukadalur, S. Iceland". <i>Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+World+Geothermal+Congress+2000&rft.atitle=Geochemical+Study+of+the+Geysir+Geothermal+Field+in+Haukadalur%2C+S.+Iceland&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pasvanoglu&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Kristmannsd%C3%B3ttir%2C+H.&rft.au=Bj%C3%B6rnsson%2C+S.&rft.au=Torfason%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-bot-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bot_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bot_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171–185</span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf">Extremophiles</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409071712/http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a204/extremophile.pdf">Archived</a> 2008-04-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. <i>Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability.</i> Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, <b>65(1)</b>, 1–34.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/">Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Delaware" title="University of Delaware">University of Delaware</a>, Retrieved on 2008-03-29 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071010114505/http://www.udel.edu/chem/bahnson/chem645/websites/Heaton/">Archived</a> October 10, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995</span>
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<li id="cite_note-uweb-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uweb_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Glennon, J Allan <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm">"World Geyser Fields"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141427/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/world.htm">Archived</a> 2007-06-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 2008-04-04</span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm">"Yellowstone geysers"</a> nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20</span>
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<li id="cite_note-NG-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NG_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMehta2008" class="citation news cs1">Mehta, Aalok (2008-04-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605-geyser-valley.html">"Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Photo+in+the+News%3A+Russia%27s+Valley+of+the+Geysers+Lost+in+Landslide&rft.date=2008-04-16&rft.aulast=Mehta&rft.aufirst=Aalok&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2007%2F06%2F070605-geyser-valley.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarding2007" class="citation news cs1">Harding, Luke (2007-06-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html">"Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka's Valley of Geysers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardian Unlimited">Guardian Unlimited</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guardian+Unlimited&rft.atitle=Mudslide+fully+changes+terrain+in+Kamchatka%27s+Valley+of+Geysers&rft.date=2007-06-05&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Frussia%2Farticle%2F0%2C%2C2095579%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFShpilenok2007" class="citation news cs1">Shpilenok, Igor (2007-06-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm">"June 2007 Special release – The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm">the original</a> on April 12, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=June+2007+Special+release+%E2%80%93+The+Natural+Disaster+at+the+Valley+of+the+Geysers&rft.date=2007-06-09&rft.aulast=Shpilenok&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shpilenok.com%2Fnew%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003</span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGambleWrightBaker1993" class="citation journal cs1">Gamble, J. A.; Wright, I. C.; Baker, J. A. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122075312/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php">"Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand"</a>. <i>New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics</i>. <b>36</b> (4): 417–435. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288306.1993.9514588">10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php">the original</a> on 2008-11-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Zealand+Journal+of+Geology+and+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Seafloor+geology+and+petrology+in+the+oceanic+to+continental+transition+zone+of+the+Kermadec-Havre-Taupo+Volcanic+Zone+arc+system%2C+New+Zealand&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=417-435&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00288306.1993.9514588&rft.aulast=Gamble&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Wright%2C+I.+C.&rft.au=Baker%2C+J.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsnz.org%2Fpublish%2Fnzjgg%2F1993%2F40.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html">Central North Island sitting on magma film</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090107010456/http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html">Archived</a> 2009-01-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16</span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wondermondo.com/geysers-of-iceland/">"Geysers of Iceland"</a>. 5 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geysers+of+Iceland&rft.date=2019-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wondermondo.com%2Fgeysers-of-iceland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gardner Servian, Solveig <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://website.lineone.net/~polar.publishing/geysersoficeland.htm">"Geysers of Iceland"</a> Retrieved on 2008-04-16</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whakarewarewa.com/">"Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village"</a> Retrieved 2008-04-04</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/Environment/Natural-resources/Geothermal/Geothermal-systems-map/Orakeikorako/">"Orakeikorako"</a>. <i>www.waikatoregion.govt.nz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.waikatoregion.govt.nz&rft.atitle=Orakeikorako&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.waikatoregion.govt.nz%2FEnvironment%2FNatural-resources%2FGeothermal%2FGeothermal-systems-map%2FOrakeikorako%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-yellowstone-supervolcano-geothermal-energy-debate-iceland-hawaii/">"Yellowstone Supervolcano Could Be an Energy Source. But Should It?"</a>. <i>Science</i>. 2018-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Yellowstone+Supervolcano+Could+Be+an+Energy+Source.+But+Should+It%3F&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2F2018%2F08%2Fnews-yellowstone-supervolcano-geothermal-energy-debate-iceland-hawaii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFValley" class="citation web cs1">Valley, Waimangu Volcanic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200515214651/https://www.waimangu.co.nz/history/eruption-birth-of-waimangu">"1886 Mt Tarawera Eruption"</a>. <i>Waimangu Volcanic Valley</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.waimangu.co.nz/history/eruption-birth-of-waimangu">the original</a> on 2020-05-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Waimangu+Volcanic+Valley&rft.atitle=1886+Mt+Tarawera+Eruption&rft.aulast=Valley&rft.aufirst=Waimangu+Volcanic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.waimangu.co.nz%2Fhistory%2Feruption-birth-of-waimangu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKlemetti2011" class="citation magazine cs1">Klemetti, Erik (2011-02-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2011/02/the-1886-eruption-of-mt-tarawera-new-zealand/">"The 1886 Eruption of Mt. Tarawera, New Zealand"</a>. <i>Wired</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028">1059-1028</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+1886+Eruption+of+Mt.+Tarawera%2C+New+Zealand&rft.date=2011-02-10&rft.issn=1059-1028&rft.aulast=Klemetti&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2011%2F02%2Fthe-1886-eruption-of-mt-tarawera-new-zealand%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, Wyoming <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm">"Old Faithful Geyser of California"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190607050719/http://www.wyojones.com/of_califonia.htm">Archived</a> 2019-06-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>WyoJones' Geyser Pages</i> Retrieved on 2008-03-31</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert2018" class="citation web cs1">Albert, Jessica (June 17, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wnep.com/article/news/local/schuylkill-county/getting-to-the-bottom-of-this-gushing-geyser-in-schuylkill-county/523-eede19c1-008d-4987-bfe1-9ee658b41dab">"Getting to the Bottom of This Gushing Geyser in Schuylkill County"</a>. <i>WNEP-TV</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WNEP-TV&rft.atitle=Getting+to+the+Bottom+of+This+Gushing+Geyser+in+Schuylkill+County&rft.date=2018-06-17&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wnep.com%2Farticle%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fschuylkill-county%2Fgetting-to-the-bottom-of-this-gushing-geyser-in-schuylkill-county%2F523-eede19c1-008d-4987-bfe1-9ee658b41dab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">WyoJones <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm">"Thermal Feature Definitions"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190721165037/http://www.wyojones.com/geyserdef.htm">Archived</a> 2019-07-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>WyoJones</i> Retrieved on 2008-04-03</span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFO'BanionHall1980" class="citation journal cs1">O'Banion, K.; Hall, C. (14 July 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1195594/">"Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers-Calistoga KGRA"</a>. DOE–SciTech. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F6817678">10.2172/6817678</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6817678">6817678</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129626036">129626036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Geothermal+energy+and+the+land+resource%3A+conflicts+and+constraints+in+The+Geysers-Calistoga+KGRA&rft.date=1980-07-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129626036%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F6817678%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F6817678&rft.aulast=O%27Banion&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Hall%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1195594%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF">Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA</a> osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12</span>
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<li id="cite_note-cold-geyser-model-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cold-geyser-model_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cold-geyser-model_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia07799.html">"Enceladus "Cold Geyser" Model"</a>. <i>NASA</i>. 3 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Enceladus+%22Cold+Geyser%22+Model&rft.date=2006-09-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2Fcassini%2Fmultimedia%2Fpia07799.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Porco_Helfenstein_et_al._2006-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Porco_Helfenstein_et_al._2006_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPorco_Helfenstein_et_al._2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Porco" title="Carolyn Porco">Porco, C. C.</a>; Helfenstein, P.; Thomas, P. C.; Ingersoll, A. P.; Wisdom, J.; West, R.; Neukum, G.; Denk, T.; Wagner, R. (10 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36593/">"Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>311</b> (5766): 1393–1401. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311.1393P">2006Sci...311.1393P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1123013">10.1126/science.1123013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16527964">16527964</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6976648">6976648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Cassini+Observes+the+Active+South+Pole+of+Enceladus&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=5766&rft.pages=1393-1401&rft.date=2006-03-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1123013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6976648%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16527964&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...311.1393P&rft.aulast=Porco&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rft.au=Helfenstein%2C+P.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+P.+C.&rft.au=Ingersoll%2C+A.+P.&rft.au=Wisdom%2C+J.&rft.au=West%2C+R.&rft.au=Neukum%2C+G.&rft.au=Denk%2C+T.&rft.au=Wagner%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F36593%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NASA-20131212-EU-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NASA-20131212-EU_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCookGutroBrownHarrington2013" class="citation web cs1">Cook, Jia-Rui C.; Gutro, Rob; Brown, Dwayne; Harrington, J.D.; Fohn, Joe (12 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363">"Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon"</a>. <i>NASA</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Hubble+Sees+Evidence+of+Water+Vapor+at+Jupiter+Moon&rft.date=2013-12-12&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Jia-Rui+C.&rft.au=Gutro%2C+Rob&rft.au=Brown%2C+Dwayne&rft.au=Harrington%2C+J.D.&rft.au=Fohn%2C+Joe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews.php%3Frelease%3D2013-363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-THEMIS-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-THEMIS_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBurnham2006" class="citation web cs1">Burnham, Robert (2006-08-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asu.edu/news/stories/200608/20060818_marsplumes.htm">"Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a> web site</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arizona+State+University+web+site&rft.atitle=Gas+jet+plumes+unveil+mystery+of+%27spiders%27+on+Mars&rft.date=2006-08-16&rft.aulast=Burnham&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asu.edu%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F200608%2F20060818_marsplumes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/neptune_triton.html">"Triton (Voyager)"</a>. NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission). June 1, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Triton+%28Voyager%29&rft.pub=NASA+%28Voyager+The+Interstellar+Mission%29&rft.date=2005-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvoyager.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fscience%2Fneptune_triton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-harv-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harv_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1990LPI....21..633K&letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=633&epage=633&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf">"Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton"</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a></i> Retrieved 2008-04-08</span>
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</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Bryan, T. Scott (1995). <i>The geysers of Yellowstone</i>. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87081-365-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87081-365-X">0-87081-365-X</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glennon,_J.A." class="mw-redirect" title="Glennon, J.A.">Glennon, J.A.</a>, Pfaff, R.M. (2003). <i>The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile</i>, Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glennon,_J.A." class="mw-redirect" title="Glennon, J.A.">Glennon, J.A.</a> (2007). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070902032519/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm">About Geysers</a></i>, University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.</li>
<li>Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). <i>Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system</i>, in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789–790.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRinehart1980" class="citation book cs1">Rinehart, John S. (1980). <i>Geysers and Geothermal Energy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-6084-4">10.1007/978-1-4612-6084-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-6086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-6086-8"><bdi>978-1-4612-6086-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geysers+and+Geothermal+Energy&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-6084-4&rft.isbn=978-1-4612-6086-8&rft.aulast=Rinehart&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Schreier, Carl (2003). <i>Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)</i> (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943972-09-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-943972-09-4">0-943972-09-4</a></li>
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<li>Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) <i>Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park</i>, Publ. 466. Carnegie Institution of Washington, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, 525 p.</li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHirvonenPapageorgiou2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hirvonen, Mika; Papageorgiou, Anastassios C. (2003). "Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanase from Melanocarpus albomyces: Mechanistic Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms". <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>. <b>329</b> (3): 403–410. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2803%2900467-4">10.1016/S0022-2836(03)00467-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12767825">12767825</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Crystal+Structure+of+a+Family+45+Endoglucanase+from+Melanocarpus+albomyces%3A+Mechanistic+Implications+Based+on+the+Free+and+Cellobiose-bound+Forms&rft.volume=329&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=403-410&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2803%2900467-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12767825&rft.aulast=Hirvonen&rft.aufirst=Mika&rft.au=Papageorgiou%2C+Anastassios+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Iogen doubles <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040903203044/http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html">EcoEthanol Capacity</a>. April 28, 2003. (accessed May 17, <b>2003</b>).</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPèlachPastorPuigVilaseca2003" class="citation journal cs1">Pèlach, M.A; Pastor, F.J; Puig, J.; Vilaseca, F.; Mutjé, P. (2003). "Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase". <i>Process Biochemistry</i>. <b>38</b> (7): 1063–1067. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0032-9592%2802%2900237-6">10.1016/S0032-9592(02)00237-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Process+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Enzymic+deinking+of+old+newspapers+with+cellulase&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1063-1067&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0032-9592%2802%2900237-6&rft.aulast=P%C3%A8lach&rft.aufirst=M.A&rft.au=Pastor%2C+F.J&rft.au=Puig%2C+J.&rft.au=Vilaseca%2C+F.&rft.au=Mutj%C3%A9%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDienesEgyháziRéczey2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dienes, D.; Egyházi, A.; Réczey, K. (2004). "Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases". <i>Industrial Crops and Products</i>. <b>20</b>: 11–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.indcrop.2003.12.009">10.1016/j.indcrop.2003.12.009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Crops+and+Products&rft.atitle=Treatment+of+recycled+fiber+with+Trichoderma+cellulases&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=11-21&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.indcrop.2003.12.009&rft.aulast=Dienes&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Egyh%C3%A1zi%2C+A.&rft.au=R%C3%A9czey%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCsiszárLosoncziSzakácsRusznák2001" class="citation journal cs1">Csiszár, Emı́lia; Losonczi, Anita; Szakács, George; Rusznák, István; Bezúr, László; Reicher, Johanna (2001). "Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton pretreatment". <i>Journal of Biotechnology</i>. <b>89</b> (2–3): 271–279. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-1656%2801%2900315-7">10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00315-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11500222">11500222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Enzymes+and+chelating+agent+in+cotton+pretreatment&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=271-279&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-1656%2801%2900315-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11500222&rft.aulast=Csisz%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=Em%C4%B1%CC%81lia&rft.au=Losonczi%2C+Anita&rft.au=Szak%C3%A1cs%2C+George&rft.au=Ruszn%C3%A1k%2C+Istv%C3%A1n&rft.au=Bez%C3%BAr%2C+L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rft.au=Reicher%2C+Johanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., <i>Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories</i> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: John Wiley & Sons, <b>1981</b>), 26.</li>
<li>Harsh K. Gupta, <i>Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative</i> (<a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, <b>1980</b>), 186.</li>
<li>The Earth Explored: <i>Geothermal Energy</i>, 19857 videocassette.</li>
<li>Brimner, Larry Dane. <i>Geysers</i>. New York: Children's Press, <b>2000</b>.</li>
<li>Downs, Sandra. <i>Earth's Fiery Fury.</i> Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, <b>2000</b>.</li>
<li>Gallant, Roy A. <i>Geysers: When Earth Roars.</i> New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, <b>1997</b>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLeConte1878" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_LeConte" title="Joseph LeConte">LeConte, Joseph</a> (February 1878). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 12/February 1878/Geysers and How They are Explained"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_12/February_1878/Geysers_and_How_They_are_Explained">"Geysers and How They are Explained" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Science Monthly">Popular Science Monthly</a></i>. Vol. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Geysers+and+How+They+are+Explained&rft.volume=12&rft.date=1878-02&rft.aulast=LeConte&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geyser&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm"><i>Geysers and How They Work</i> by Yellowstone National Park</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geyserstudy.org/">Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geysertimes.org">GeyserTimes.org</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/">Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040207004906/http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/"><i>About Geysers</i> by Alan Glennon</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm"><i>Geysers</i>, The UnMuseum</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html"><i>Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070416140350/http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html"><i>The Geology of the Icelandic geysers</i> by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html"><i>Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems</i> by Meg Streepey</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?ar_a=1">National Geographic</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Geysers"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Geysers">"Geysers" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 10 (9th ed.). 1879. pp. 556–558.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geysers&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=556-558&rft.edition=9th&rft.date=1879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeyser" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earth%27s_landforms" title="Template talk:Earth's landforms"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earth%27s_landforms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earth's landforms"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth&#039;s_landforms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms" title="Glossary of landforms">List of landforms</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mountainous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butte" title="Butte">Butte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hill" title="Hill">Hill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flat_(landform)" title="Flat (landform)">Flat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">Mountain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">Mountain range</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">Plateau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ridge" title="Ridge">Ridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Table_(landform)" title="Table (landform)">Table</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">Valley</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continental plain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Ice sheet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">Plain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial_processes" title="Fluvial processes">Fluvial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">Alluvial fan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">Beach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">Canyon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">Cliff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">Lake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">Oasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rapids" title="Rapids">Rapids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">River</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">River mouth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">Strait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">Swamp</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">Valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">Waterfall</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glacial_landform" title="Glacial landform">Glacial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte" title="Arête">Arête</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">Cirque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esker" title="Esker">Esker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">Ice field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_valley" title="Tunnel valley">Tunnel valley</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Oceanic and<br /> coastal landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">Bay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">Cape</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Coast</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">Isthmus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">Volcanic island</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Volcanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">Caldera</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">Lava dome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lava_field" title="Lava field">Lava field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_crater" title="Volcanic crater">Volcanic crater</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake" title="Volcanic crater lake">Volcanic crater lake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_dam" title="Volcanic dam">Volcanic dam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">Volcanic island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_plateau" title="Volcanic plateau">Volcanic plateau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_plug" title="Volcanic plug">Volcanic plug</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcano</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wall_rock" title="Wall rock">Wall rock</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Aeolian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">Desert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dry_lake" title="Dry lake">Dry lake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sandhill" title="Sandhill">Sandhill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_island" title="Artificial island">Artificial island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Building</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ditch" title="Ditch">Ditch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polder" title="Polder">Polder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Road</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geographical_feature" title="Geographical feature">Geographical feature</a></div></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Topics_related_to_Geysers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geysers" title="Template:Geysers"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geysers" title="Template talk:Geysers"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geysers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geysers"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Topics_related_to_Geysers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics related to <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geysers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geysers" title="List of geysers">List of geysers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">Geyserite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">Hyperthermophile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophile</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Tatio" title="El Tatio">El Tatio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geysir" title="Geysir">Geysir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strokkur" title="Strokkur">Strokkur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Knox_Geyser" title="Lady Knox Geyser">Lady Knox Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orakei_Korako" title="Orakei Korako">Orakei Korako</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taup%C5%8D_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupō Volcanic Zone">Taupō Volcanic Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Waiotapu" title="Waiotapu">Waiotapu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Waimangu_Geyser" title="Waimangu Geyser">Waimangu Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wairakei" title="Wairakei">Wairakei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whakarewarewa" title="Whakarewarewa">Whakarewarewa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Geysers" title="Valley of Geysers">Valley of Geysers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soda_Springs,_Idaho" title="Soda Springs, Idaho">Soda Springs, Idaho</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beowawe,_Nevada" title="Beowawe, Nevada">Beowawe, Nevada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Black_Rock_Desert" title="Black Rock Desert">Black Rock Desert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Springs,_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Steamboat Springs, Nevada">Steamboat Springs, Nevada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Geyser" title="Crystal Geyser">Crystal Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geysers_of_Wyoming" title="Category:Geysers of Wyoming">(more...)</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rivers,_streams_and_springs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Template:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Template talk:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rivers,_streams_and_springs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">Rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">springs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">Rivers</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" title="Lists of rivers">lists</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_river" title="Alluvial river">Alluvial river</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">Braided river</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_river" title="Blackwater river">Blackwater river</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Channel_pattern" title="Channel pattern">Channel pattern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Channel_types" title="Channel types">Channel types</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confluence" title="Confluence">Confluence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Distributary" title="Distributary">Distributary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Drainage basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">Subterranean river</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_bifurcation" title="River bifurcation">River bifurcation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_source" title="River source">River source</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tributary" title="Tributary">Tributary</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">Streams</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arroyo_(creek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arroyo (creek)">Arroyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bourne_(stream)" title="Bourne (stream)">Bourne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Burn_(landform)" title="Burn (landform)">Burn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chalk_stream" title="Chalk stream">Chalk stream</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coulee" title="Coulee">Coulee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Current_(stream)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (stream)">Current</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream channel">Stream channel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Streamflow" title="Streamflow">Streamflow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_gradient" title="Stream gradient">Stream gradient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_stream" title="Perennial stream">Perennial stream</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Winterbourne_(stream)" title="Winterbourne (stream)">Winterbourne</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Springs</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_springs" title="List of springs">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">Estavelle/Inversac</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geyser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holy_well" title="Holy well">Holy well</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">Hot spring</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hot_springs" title="List of hot springs">list</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hot_springs_in_the_United_States" title="List of hot springs in the United States">list in the US</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_karst_springs" title="List of karst springs">list</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_spring" title="Mineral spring">Mineral spring</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhythmic_spring" title="Rhythmic spring">Rhythmic spring</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spring_horizon" title="Spring horizon">Spring horizon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sedimentary processes</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(geology)" title="Abrasion (geology)">Abrasion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anabranch" title="Anabranch">Anabranch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aggradation" title="Aggradation">Aggradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Armor_(hydrology)" title="Armor (hydrology)">Armor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bed_load" title="Bed load">Bed load</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bed_material_load" title="Bed material load">Bed material load</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Granular_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Granular flow">Granular flow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">Deposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_load" title="Dissolved load">Dissolved load</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Downcutting" title="Downcutting">Downcutting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Headward_erosion" title="Headward erosion">Headward erosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knickpoint" title="Knickpoint">Knickpoint</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Palaeochannel" title="Palaeochannel">Palaeochannel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Progradation" title="Progradation">Progradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Retrogradation" title="Retrogradation">Retrogradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(geology)" title="Saltation (geology)">Saltation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_flow#River_bends" title="Secondary flow">Secondary flow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suspended_load" title="Suspended load">Suspended load</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wash_load" title="Wash load">Wash load</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_gap" title="Water gap">Water gap</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial#Fluvial_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ait" title="Ait">Ait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">Alluvial fan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_drainage_stream" title="Antecedent drainage stream">Antecedent drainage stream</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bank_(geography)" title="Bank (geography)">Bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(river_morphology)" title="Bar (river morphology)">Bar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayou" title="Bayou">Bayou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Billabong" title="Billabong">Billabong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">Canyon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chine" title="Chine">Chine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cut_bank" title="Cut bank">Cut bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floating_island" title="Floating island">Floating island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fluvial_terrace" title="Fluvial terrace">Fluvial terrace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gill_(ravine)" title="Gill (ravine)">Gill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gulch" title="Gulch">Gulch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gully" title="Gully">Gully</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glen" title="Glen">Glen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meander_scar" title="Meander scar">Meander scar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">Oxbow lake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Riffle-pool_sequence" title="Riffle-pool sequence">Riffle-pool sequence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Point_bar" title="Point bar">Point bar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ravine" title="Ravine">Ravine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rill" title="Rill">Rill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_island" title="River island">River island</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_basin" title="Rock-cut basin">Rock-cut basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">Sedimentary basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_structures" title="Sedimentary structures">Sedimentary structures</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strath" title="Strath">Strath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thalweg" title="Thalweg">Thalweg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">River valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">Wadi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial#Fluvial_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial flow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helicoidal_flow" title="Helicoidal flow">Helicoidal flow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_scale_of_river_difficulty" title="International scale of river difficulty">International scale of river difficulty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">Log jam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rapids" title="Rapids">Rapids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Riffle" title="Riffle">Riffle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_capture" title="Stream capture">Stream capture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">Waterfall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater" title="Whitewater">Whitewater</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural wastewater">Agricultural wastewater</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/First_flush" title="First flush">First flush</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crevasse_splay" title="Crevasse splay">Crevasse splay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-water_floods" title="List of non-water floods">Non-water flood</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flood_barrier" title="Flood barrier">Flood barrier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flood_forecasting" title="Flood forecasting">Flood forecasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flood-meadow" title="Flood-meadow">Flood-meadow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flood_pulse_concept" title="Flood pulse concept">Flood pulse concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Inundation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Storm_Water_Management_Model" title="Storm Water Management Model">Storm Water Management Model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Return_period" title="Return period">Return period</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution#Pollution_from_point_sources" title="Water pollution">Point source pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">Effluent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial wastewater">Industrial wastewater</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">River measurement<br />and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baer%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Baer's law">Baer's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baseflow" title="Baseflow">Baseflow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bradshaw_model" title="Bradshaw model">Bradshaw model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)" title="Discharge (hydrology)">Discharge (hydrology)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_density" title="Drainage density">Drainage density</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exner_equation" title="Exner equation">Exner equation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">Groundwater model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hack%27s_law" title="Hack's law">Hack's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hjulstr%C3%B6m_curve" title="Hjulström curve">Hjulström curve</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrograph" title="Hydrograph">Hydrograph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrological modelling">Hydrological modelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">Hydrological transport model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration (hydrology)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Main_stem" title="Main stem">Main stem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Playfair%27s_law" title="Playfair's law">Playfair's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relief_ratio" title="Relief ratio">Relief ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_Continuum_Concept" title="River Continuum Concept">River Continuum Concept</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rouse_number" title="Rouse number">Rouse number</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_curve_number" title="Runoff curve number">Runoff curve number</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_model_(reservoir)" title="Runoff model (reservoir)">Runoff model (reservoir)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_gauge" title="Stream gauge">Stream gauge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Soil_Loss_Equation" title="Universal Soil Loss Equation">Universal Soil Loss Equation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/WAFLEX" title="WAFLEX">WAFLEX</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wetted_perimeter" title="Wetted perimeter">Wetted perimeter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">Volumetric flow rate</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">Aqueduct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">Balancing lake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drop_structure" title="Drop structure">Drop structure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daylighting_(streams)" title="Daylighting (streams)">Daylighting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fish_ladder" title="Fish ladder">Fish ladder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain_restoration" title="Floodplain restoration">Floodplain restoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flume" title="Flume">Flume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leat" title="Leat">Leat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revetment" title="Revetment">Revetment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Riparian-zone_restoration" title="Riparian-zone restoration">Riparian-zone restoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stream_restoration" title="Stream restoration">Stream restoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">Weir</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">River sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canyoning" title="Canyoning">Canyoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fly_fishing" title="Fly fishing">Fly fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rafting" title="Rafting">Rafting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_surfing" title="River surfing">River surfing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Riverboarding" title="Riverboarding">Riverboarding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stone_skipping" title="Stone skipping">Stone skipping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Triathlon" title="Triathlon">Triathlon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_canoeing" title="Whitewater canoeing">Whitewater canoeing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_kayaking" title="Whitewater kayaking">Whitewater kayaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_slalom" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitewater slalom">Whitewater slalom</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">Body of water</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic civilization">Hydraulic civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_valley_civilization" title="River valley civilization">River valley civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/River_cruise" title="River cruise">River cruise</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wild_river" title="Wild river">Wild river</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_by_length" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rivers by length">Rivers by length</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_by_discharge" title="List of rivers by discharge">Rivers by discharge rate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins" class="mw-redirect" title="List of drainage basins">Drainage basins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_whitewater_rivers" title="List of whitewater rivers">Whitewater rivers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flash_floods" title="List of flash floods">Flash floods</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_river_name_etymologies" title="List of river name etymologies">River name etymologies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_without_rivers" title="List of countries without rivers">Countries without rivers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83471#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83471#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Q83471#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/942308/">FAST</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX5043034">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119805884">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119805884">BnF data</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4157308-0">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007529288805171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85054747">United States</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=28963">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10675984">NARA</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
