Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Mountain in Chile}}
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{{Use British English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Mount Hudson
| other_name = Cerro Hudson
| photo = Cerro_hudson.jpg
| photo_caption = Aerial photo from 1991
| elevation_m = 1,905
| map = Chile
| elevation_ref =
| prominence =
| location = Chile
| range = [[Andes]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|45.92|S|72.95|W|type:mountain_region:CL-AI|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = {{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}}
| type = [[Caldera]]
| age =
| volcanic_arc/belt = [[Andean Volcanic Belt#Southern Volcanic Zone|Southern Volcanic Zone]]
| last_eruption = 2011
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
| etymology = Named after [[Francisco Hudson]]
| photo_alt = A steaming depression, surrounded by dark ash deposits, in the middle of a circular ice field
| map_alt = Hudson lies in southernmost Chile
}}
'''Mount Hudson''' ({{lang-es|'''Volcán Hudson'''}}, {{lang-es|'''Cerro Hudson'''}}, {{lang-es|'''Monte Hudson'''|label=none}}) is a [[volcano]] in the rugged mountains of southern [[Chile]]. Lying in the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] of the [[Andes]], it was formed by the [[subduction]] of the oceanic [[Nazca Plate]] under the continental [[South American Plate]]. The Nazca Plate ends there at the [[Chile Triple Junction]]; south of Hudson is a smaller volcano, followed by a long gap without active volcanoes that separates the Southern Volcanic Zone from the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]]. Hudson has the form of a {{convert|10|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} volcanic [[caldera]] filled with ice. The Huemules [[Glacier]] emerges from the northwestern side of the caldera. The volcano has erupted rocks ranging from [[basalt]] to [[rhyolite]], but large parts of the caldera are formed by non-volcanic rocks.
The volcano erupted numerous times in the late [[Pleistocene]]{{efn|The epoch between 2,58 million and 11,700 years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}} and [[Holocene]]{{efn|The epoch beginning 11,700 years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}, forming widespread [[tephra]] deposits both in the proximity of Hudson and in the wider region, and is the most active volcano in the region. The last eruption was in 2011.
Four large eruptions took place in 17,300–17,440 [[Before present|BP]] ("H0 eruption"), 7,750 BP ("H1 eruption"), 4,200 BP ("H2 eruption") and in 1991 [[AD]] ("H3 eruption"); the second is among the most intense volcanic eruptions in [[South America]] during the [[Holocene]]. A smaller eruption occurred in 1971. The 7,750 BP and 1991 eruptions had a substantial impact on the human population of Patagonia and (for the 7,750 BP eruption) [[Tierra del Fuego]]: The 7,750 BP eruption devastated the local ecosystem and may have caused substantial shifts in human settlement and lifestyle. During the 1991 eruption, [[volcanic ash]] covered a large area in Chile and neighbouring [[Argentina]], causing high mortality in farm animals, aggravating an existing economic crisis, and depositing ash as far as [[Antarctica]].
== Geography and geomorphology ==
Mount Hudson lies in the Andes of southern Chile,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} northwest of [[Lago Buenos Aires]].{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=2}} The name "Hudson" refers to [[Francisco Hudson]], a [[Chilean Navy]] captain and [[hydrography|hydrographer]].{{sfn|Sánchez|1905|p=33}} Another name of the volcano is Cerro de los Ventisqueros.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=1}}{{efn|One source claims that it's technically the correct name of the volcano, giving the name "Hudson" to a different mountain.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report CSLP 80-71}}}} Politically, Mount Hudson is in the [[Aysen Province]]{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=1}} of Chile's [[Aysen Region]].{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=6}} Most of the volcano is in the [[Chilean municipalities|Chilean municipality]] of Aysen; the eastern and southern parts are in the municipalities Coihaique and Rio Ibáñez, respectively.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=40}} Owing to its remoteness and the dense vegetation at its foot, the volcano is poorly studied;{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} it was recognized as a volcano only{{efn|While it is often stated that the 1971 eruption led to its recognition as a volcano,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} an unpublished report about the caldera was written in 1970.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=3}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=291}}}} in 1970.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}} The closest cities are [[Puerto Aysen]] {{convert|58|km}} north-northeast and [[Coihaique]] {{convert|75|km}} northeast; the [[Carretera Austral]] [[highway]] passes {{convert|30|km}} from the volcano.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} The volcano can be accessed either from the sea along the Huemules River valley or by land via the valley of the Blanco River from Lago Elizalde-Lago Claro.{{sfn|Fuenzalida-Ponce|1974|p=79}} Small populations, mostly farmers, live in the surrounding valleys.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=7}}
The [[Andean Volcanic Belt]] includes four volcanic zones separated by gaps without recent volcanoes. From north to south they are the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Central Volcanic Zone]], the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] (SVZ) and the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]] (AVZ).{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} Hudson is the second-southernmost volcano of the SVZ, after [[Río Murta (volcano)|Rio Murta]]; erroneously,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|pp=209,216}} it is often referred to as the southernmost.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}}{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} Farther south there is the {{convert|350|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} Patagonian Volcanic Gap{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=420}} in the Andean Volcanic Belt,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} which separates Hudson from the Austral Volcanic Zone and its first volcano, [[Lautaro (volcano)|Lautaro]].{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=7}} The next volcanoes to the north are [[Mate Grande]] {{convert|35|km}}{{sfn|De Pascale|Froude|Penna|Hermanns|2021|p=9}} and [[Cerro Macá|Macá]] and [[Cay]] {{convert|95|km}} from Hudson,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} then [[Mentolat]] and the [[Puyuhuapi (volcanic group)|Puyuhuapi volcanic field]].{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=2}}
The volcano is a {{convert|10|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide|sigfig=1}} ice-filled [[caldera]]{{efn|It appears to consist of two or three nested calderas.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 1}}}} that rises {{convert|1000| to |1200|m}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} Only the western and southern margins are well-defined.{{sfn|Parra|Figueroa|1999|p=468}} The highest point reaches {{convert|1905|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} The edifice consists partly of volcanic rocks and partly of uplifted [[basement (geology)|basement]],{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} and has an eroded appearance,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} with steep valleys cutting as much as {{convert|1|km|1}} into the outer reaches of the volcano.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} The total volume of the volcano is about {{convert|147|km3}}, larger than other SVZ volcanoes,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=5}} and it covers an area of about {{convert|300|km2}}.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=7}} [[Cinder cone|Cinder]] and [[spatter cone]]s reach heights of {{convert|200| to |300|m}} and are sources of [[lava flow]]s outside of the caldera, especially in the Sorpresa Sur valley.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} There are two cones northeast of the caldera and one in the far southwest.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=2}} The landscape of the Andes around Hudson is formed by numerous mountains (including the Cerros Hudson {{convert|12|km}} south of the volcano) with deep, [[glacial]]ly carved valleys.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} Thick [[andosol|volcanic soils]] occur in the area.{{sfn|Vandekerkhove|Bertrand|Reid|Bartels|2016|p=504}}
The caldera is filled with about {{convert|2.5|km3|sigfig=1}} of {{convert|40|m|adj=on}} thick [[ice]],{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} forming an ice surface at about {{convert|1505| to |1520|m|sigfig=3}} elevation. Ice flows out of the northwestern margin of the caldera and forms the Ventisquero de los Huemules [[Glacier]].{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} The Huemules Glacier is the largest glacier of Mount Hudson, being {{convert|11|km}} long,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} and the headwater of the Huemules River. The glacier is covered by [[tephra]] and its surface is at too low an altitude for the tephra to be buried under snow;{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=212}}{{sfn|Rivera|Bown|2013|p=350}} thus from the air the glacier looks like a lava flow.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} A small [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] is at its beginning and occupies a crater of the 1991 eruption.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} Most of the ice in the caldera was destroyed by the 1971 eruption, but by 1979 it had built up again. During the 1991 eruption, cones surrounded by [[crevasse]]s and small lakes formed in the ice. The recovery of the ice after the 1991 eruption was slower, and by 2002 Huemules [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|was retreating]].{{sfn|Masiokas|Rivera|Espizua|Villalba|2009|p=245}}{{sfn|Rivera|Bown|2013|p=350}} During eruptions, pyroclastic material and lava can melt the ice.{{sfn|Barr|Lynch|Mullan|De Siena|2018|p=196}} Other glaciers emanating from the ice cap are the Desplayado, Bayo, Ibáñez, El Frio, Sorpresa Sur and Sorpresa Norte glaciers. They were up to {{convert|3|km}} long in 1974 but have retreated since then.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} Together with the [[Queulat National Park|Queulat Ice Cap]], the Hudson glaciers make up a large part of the regional glacier inventory,{{sfn|Cooper|Thorndycraft|Davies|Palmer|2021|p=663}} and have left well-preserved [[moraine]]s.{{sfn|Cooper|Thorndycraft|Davies|Palmer|2021|p=674}} The path of some of the glaciers may be influenced by local tectonic [[lineament]]s.{{sfn|Fuenzalida-Ponce|1974|p=79}} Numerous rivers originate on Hudson; clockwise from north to south they include the Rio Desplayado to the north, the Rio Bayo to the east, the [[Ibáñez River|Rio Ibáñez]], the Rio Sorpresa Sur, Rio Sorpresa Norte all to the southeast, and the Huemules River to the northwest.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} Volcanic activity might be responsible for fluctuations in the discharge of the Huemules River.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=1}}
== Geology ==
[[File:Subduction-en.svg|thumb|Schematic of a subduction zone|alt=During subduction, a tectonic plate sinks underneath another one and produces melts that form volcanoes]]
Off the western coast of South America, the [[Nazca Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]] at a rate - at Hudson's latitude - of about {{convert|9|cm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} This subduction is responsible for volcanism in the SVZ{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} and the rest of the Andean Volcanic Belt{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} except for the AVZ, where the [[Antarctic Plate]] subducts.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}}
West of Hudson and the [[Taitao Peninsula]],{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} the [[Chile Ridge]] enters the [[Peru-Chile Trench]], forming the [[Chile Triple Junction]]. The subduction of the ridge has produced a [[slab window]] in the downgoing [[Slab (geology)|slab]], causing volcanism to cease in the [[Miocene]] and a gap to open up between the SVZ and the AVZ.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} The collision began 14 million years ago; since then, the triple junction{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} and the volcanic gap are migrating north.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} Several [[fracture zone]]s cut through the downgoing plate,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} one of which (either the Taitao or the Darwin fracture zone) may project under Hudson.{{sfn|Stern|Naranjo|2015|p=426}} South of the volcano, the Tres Montes Fracture Zone forms the northern boundary of the slab window.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=229}} The subducted plate is still young and hot.{{sfn|Kilian|Ippach|Lopez-Escobar|1993|p=386}} The position of Hudson just east of the triple junction may be responsible for the unusually high activity of the volcano.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=22}} Older volcanism in the region includes [[back-arc]] volcanoes in Patagonia and [[adakitic]] rocks in the Taitao Peninsula that were emplaced during the last 4 million years.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=210}}
Hudson rises from the [[North Patagonian Batholith|Patagonian Batholith]], a {{convert|1000|km|sigfig=1|adj=on}} long [[Formation (geology)|formation]] made up of [[intrusive rock]]s ([[diorite]], [[gabbro]], [[granite]], [[granodiorite]] and [[tonalite]]{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}}) that was emplaced during the [[Cretaceous]]{{efn|The epoch between about 145 and 66 million years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}-[[Neogene]]{{efn|The epoch beginning 23.03 million years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=212}} The [[Crust (geology)|crust]] under the volcano is about {{convert|30|km}} thick.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=238}} The volcanism in the SVZ is heavily influenced by [[Fault (geology)|fault]]s, including the [[Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone|Liquine-Ofqui Fault Zone]] (LOFZ) which runs parallel to the volcanic belt.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=211}} In the Hudson area, the LOFZ is formed by two branches connected through perpendicular [[Fault (geology)|fault]]s{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=229}} and lies {{convert|30|km}} west of the volcano.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} The LOFZ moves at a rate of about {{convert|1| to |2|cm/year|in/year|sigfig=1}} in the area.{{sfn|De Pascale|Froude|Penna|Hermanns|2021|p=1}} Recently active faults around the volcano can be recognized in the vegetation.{{sfn|Fuenzalida-Ponce|1974|p=80}}
=== Composition and magma plumbing system ===
Hudson has erupted a wide range of volcanic rocks.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=255}} The cones outside the caldera have produced [[basaltic andesite]] and [[andesite]].{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} The Hudson rocks are a [[potassium]]-rich [[calc-alkaline]] rock suite straddling the alkaline-subalkaline line.{{sfn|Stern|Naranjo|2015|p=424}}{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=216}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=12}} Rocks contain only a few [[phenocryst]]s,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} including [[andesine]], [[apatite]], [[clinopyroxene]], [[ilmenite]], [[oligoclase]], [[olivine]], [[orthopyroxene]], [[plagioclase]] and [[titanomagnetite]].{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|pp=215-216}} The composition of Hudson rocks diverges from that of other SVZ volcanoes,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=222}} with higher concentrations of [[iron oxide]], [[sodium oxide]], [[titanium oxide]] and [[incompatible element]]s.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}}
The cone lavas include [[mid-ocean ridge basalt]] and [[ocean island basalt]] components as well as [[Crust (geology)|crust]]- or sediment-derived components,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|pp=225-226}} while the caldera magmas formed through [[Fractional crystallization (geology)|fractional crystallization]],{{efn|Including [[amphibole]]{{sfn|Stern|Naranjo|2015|p=426}}}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}} possibly along with the assimilation of crustal material.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=227}} The three major Holocene eruptions produced uniform magmas with temperatures of {{convert|943| to |972|C}}, a few percent water by weight and a [[trachyandesitic]] to [[Trachydacite|trachydacitic]] composition.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=261}} The H2 eruption led to a change of magma chemistry to more [[mafic]] compositions, followed by a reversal during the last 1,000 years.{{sfn|Lachowycz|Fontijn|Smith|Pyle|2016}}
Magma genesis processes can be complex in slab window areas, as melts derived from the [[asthenosphere]] that ascended through the window can take part.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} Magmas ascending into Hudson halt about {{convert|6| to |24|km|0}} underground and undergo a first phase of differentiation. Later the magma ascends into shallower reservoirs{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=262}} and is then stored at a few kilometres depth before the large Holocene eruptions.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=261}} During historical eruptions, the vents opened up in the southwestern sector of the caldera.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=14}} Some magmas can bypass the magma chamber and directly ascend to the surface through [[Fault (geology)|fault]]s, forming the volcanic cones surrounding Hudson.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=228}}
== Climate and vegetation ==
The climate at Hudson is [[oceanic climate|oceanic]], with mean annual temperatures of {{convert|8| to |10|C}}. Precipitation at the coast reaches {{convert|3000|mm|ft|sigfig=1}} per year, increasing to {{convert|10000|mm|ft|sigfig=1}} in the Andes and declining to {{convert|800|mm}} in the eastern valleys.{{sfn|Garvey|Carrasco|Solís|Bortolaso|2023|p=367}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}} Precipitation is brought by westerly winds and enhanced on the western slopes of the Andes by [[orographic precipitation]], while the eastern slopes are within the [[rainshadow]].{{sfn|Simi|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|Vilanova|2017|p=846}} Winds usually blow from the north or northwest and are strong; easterly winds are rare.{{sfn|Garvey|Carrasco|Solís|Bortolaso|2023|p=367}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}}
The region is covered by [[temperate rainforest]]s formed by [[conifer]]s, [[broadleaf tree]]s and [[beech]]es (''[[Nothofagus pumilio]]'').{{sfn|Garvey|Carrasco|Solís|Bortolaso|2023|p=367}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}} [[Magellanic moorland]]s with [[cushion plant]]s occur in the coastal areas. To the east there is a transition to the Patagonian [[steppe]] with grasses, herbs and scrubs. Since the 19th century, the vegetation has been altered by human intervention.{{sfn|Simi|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|Vilanova|2017|p=847}}<!--{{sfn|Miotti|Salemme|Hermo|2022|p=74}} for neoglaciation--> South of Hudson is the [[Northern Patagonian Ice Field]].{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=83}}
== Eruption history ==
Hudson has been active for more than one million years.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} The northeastern sector of the volcano is older than the southeastern, which has yielded ages of 120,000–100,000 years,{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 2}} but the incomplete [[stratigraphy]] of the edifice, which is largely covered with ice, precludes establishing a proper history of its growth.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: EVOLUTION OF HUDSON AND LAUTARO VOLCANOES HUDSON VOLCANO}} There are few [[tephra]]s from the [[Pleistocene]]–[[Holocene]] transition time close to the volcano, but several have been found in [[marine core]]s west of Hudson.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=150}}
During the [[last glacial maximum]], Hudson was at the centre of a large [[ice sheet]] that covered the entire region{{sfn|Mardones|Gonzalez|King|Campos|2011|p=376}} with ice more than {{convert|1|km}} thick.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=84}} Tephra from its eruptions fell on the ice and was carried away by [[glacier]]s, ending up in their moraines.{{sfn|Mardones|Gonzalez|King|Campos|2011|p=381}} The deglaciation that began 17,900 years ago{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=2}} may have enhanced volcanic activity;{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|pp=13-14}} the largest eruptions of Hudson, [[Llaima]] and [[Villarrica (volcano)|Villarrica]] took place at that time.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=84}} The melting of the ice would have depressurized the buried magma systems, thus enhancing volcanic activity immediately after deglaciation.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=87}} After deglaciation was complete, the volumes of the intense Hudson eruptions decreased.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|pp=13-14}} On the other hand, glaciation has removed most of the volcanic record of Patagonia pre-dating 14,500 years ago.{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=99}}
=== Holocene ===
Numerous [[explosive eruption]]s took place during the Holocene,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} including three intense eruptions{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} among the largest of Holocene South America.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=237}} There is a regularity, with intense explosive eruptions occurring about every 3,870 years,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} but their volumes have decreased over time and erupted rocks have become less mafic.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}} Smaller [[Plinian eruption]]s occur about every 500 to 1000 years.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 20:02}} Having erupted 55 times during the past 22,000 years,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=22}} Mount Hudson is the most active volcano in Patagonia{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=291}} and of the southernmost SVZ.{{efn|Formerly it was thought that it had been largely inactive during the past 10,000 years.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}}}}{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=6}}
The Hudson caldera probably formed during the Holocene and grew incrementally.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} Pre-caldera outcrops are rare and consist of [[breccia]]s formed by [[hyaloclastite]], [[lahar]]s{{efn|A lahar is a volcanic [[mudflow]]{{sfn|Bobrowsky|2013|loc=Lahar}}}}, mafic [[lava]]s and [[pyroclastic rock]]s; they occur mostly on the northeastern and southern sides of the caldera.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=212}} Outside of the caldera, especially to the south, are widespread [[pyroclastic fall]] deposits formed by banded [[pumice]]. Lahar deposits contain blocks of lava embedded within a fine-grained substrate.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} An [[ignimbrite]] probably associated with the formation of the caldera occurs all around Hudson. A Holocene lava flow extends along the Huemules valley and is {{convert|1| to |5|m|ft|0}} thick.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 1}} The flow may be either 1,000 or 13,000{{efn|By [[argon-argon dating]].{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 2}}}} years old;{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|pp=9-10}} it was possibly the product of multiple eruptions.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=10}} The volcanic cones outside of the caldera are weathered and covered by vegetation; they are of Holocene age.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 1}} Other geologic processes such as [[glacial erosion]] have modified the appearance of the Hudson volcano.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=231}}
Pyroclastic fall and tephra deposits{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} from Hudson and other volcanoes have been identified in marine cores in the [[Pacific Ocean]], sediments in lakes and [[peat bog]]s,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=1}} in [[soil]]s,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} and potentially in [[Antarctic]] [[ice core]]s.{{sfn|Kurbatov|Zielinski|Dunbar|Mayewski|2006|p=7}} Such tephra layers can be used to compare the timing of events across wide regions.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}} Tephra particles from Hudson have varying shapes and colours, but similar compositions.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=11}} The closest tephra record to Hudson is the Laguna Miranda record {{convert|50|km|sigfig=1}} away, which shows on average one tephra layer every 225 years although it only records eruptions that distributed ash in the direction of the lake.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=254}} Several Hudson tephra layers from Juncal Alto {{convert|92|km}} have been named T1 through T9,{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}} and another set from lakes in the [[Chonos Archipelago]] and Taitao Peninsula is named HW1 through HW7.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=247}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Selected tephra layers from Hudson
!Date BP,{{Efn|Conversion of CE to BP by adding 1950, and from AD by subtracting the AD from 1950}} sources{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=253}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}} unless given otherwise, margins of error omitted
!Taitao marine core tephra{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
!Chonos Archipelago lacustrine tephra{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=253}}
!Juncal Alto{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}} tephra layers{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}}
!Notes
|-
|19,860
|TL12
|
|
|
|-
|19,660
|TL11
|
|
|
|-
|19,600
|TL10
|
|
|
|-
|19,450
|TL9
|
|
|
|-
|18,900
|TL8
|
|
|
|-
|18,750
|TL7
|
|
|
|-
|17,350
|TL6
|
|
|
|-
|16,100/14,560/14,533{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|TL5{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW1{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|14,110/13,890/13,798{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|TL4{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW2{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|12,000/11,060/11,428{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|TL3{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW3{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|10,750
|TL2
|
|
|Tentatively assigned to Hudson{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|-
|6,910/7,765{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T1
|Estimated volume of {{convert|1|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|6,700/7,540
|
|HW4
|T2
|H1 eruption{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=250}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}}
|-
|5,840/7,221{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T3
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.1|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|4,200/4,717{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T4
|Estimated volume of {{convert|1|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|3,840
|
|HW5
|T5
|H2 eruption{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}}
|-
|2,740/2,558{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|HW6
|
|Also found southeast of the volcano{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=6}} and with an estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|2,070/2,054{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T6
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.5|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}} Also found in the [[Talos Dome]], Antarctica{{sfn|Narcisi|Petit|Delmonte|Scarchilli|2012|p=60}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=297}}
|-
|1,920/1,560
|TL1{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW7{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}} The attribution of a tephra layer in the [[Talos Dome]] of Antarctica is questionable.{{sfn|Del Carlo|Di Roberto|D'Orazio|Petrelli|2018|p=166}}
|-
|1,090/1,072{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T7
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.1|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|210/252{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T8
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.1|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
| -21 (1971 AD)
|
|
|T9
|
|}
An uncertain eruption may have occurred in 8,010 [[Before Common Era|BC]].{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}} The 1,000 years ago date of the Huemules lava flow may correlate it to a mafic eruption 1,000 years ago, which also deposited tephra east and northeast from the volcano.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=8}} Tephra layers from 1035 [[Common Era|AD]]{{sfn|Koffman|Goldstein|Winckler|Kaplan|2023|p=6}} and 9,216 BC in the [[Siple Dome]] of Antarctica have been attributed to Hudson, but for the older eruption there is no evidence in South America of an appropriately sized event.{{sfn|Del Carlo|Di Roberto|D'Orazio|Petrelli|2018|p=167}} The Las Guanacas cave {{convert|100|km}} southeast of Hudson preserves ash from Hudson more than 10,000 years old. On the Taitao Peninsula, tephra layers have been attributed to two eruptions in 11,910 and 9,960 years before present. These are isolated occurrences, indicating that they are not the products of very intense eruptions that would be expected to leave widespread deposits.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=305}} Westward spread of Hudson tephras was more common in the earliest Holocene, when the [[Southern Hemisphere]] [[westerlies]] were located north of Hudson.{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=109}}
== Significant eruptions and recent activity ==
=== H0 eruption: 17,300–17,440 BP ===
The H0 eruption took place between 17,440–17,300 BP{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=9}} during late glacial times.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} It is the largest known eruption of Hudson, yielding more than {{convert|20|km3}}{{efn|Which may be an overestimate.{{sfn|Bertrand|Daga|Bedert|Fontijn|2014|p=2571}}}} of tephra, and may have initiated the growth of the caldera.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=13}} The eruption occurred during deglaciation and was probably caused by the unloading of the magmatic system, when the overlying ice melted.{{sfn|Mora|Tassara|2019|p=1556}} The eruption occurred in several stages that yielded distinct rock compositions,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=6}} and like the 1991 AD eruption it included two distinct chemistries.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=12}} [[Basalt]] and [[trachyandesite]] were the dominant components.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}}
The tephra was emplaced northeastward. Its thickness exceeded {{convert|50|cm}} up to present-day Coihaique and the border with Argentina.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=8}} Tephra from the H0 eruption has been found in Lago Churasco, Lago Élida, Lago Mellizas, Lago Quijada, Lago Toro, Lago Shaman and Lago Unco northeast of Hudson.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|pp=7,8,13}} After the eruption had ended, winds redeposited the tephras over distances of {{convert|400|km}}.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=152}}
=== H1 eruption: 7,750 BP ===
The largest Holocene eruption of Hudson{{snd}}and of any volcano of the southern Andes{{snd}}took place at Hudson in 7,750{{efn|Older date estimates are 8260{{sfn|Stern|Weller|2012|p=878}} or 6700 [[BP]].{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}}}} BP,{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=13}} and is known as the H1 eruption.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} It produced about {{convert|18|km3}} of trachydacitic or trachyandesitic rocks,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}}{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=142}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}} thus reaching a [[volcanic explosivity index]] of 6.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=300}} A [[mass wasting]] deposit in the [[Aysen Fjord]] and the ignimbrite surrounding Hudson probably came from this eruption.{{sfn|Vanneste|Wils|Van Daele|2018|p=9862}}{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: EVOLUTION OF HUDSON AND LAUTARO VOLCANOES HUDSON VOLCANO}} The tephra deposits have three layers; an intermediary aggregate [[lapilli]] formed through [[phreatomagmatic]] activity from a tall eruption column, and two overlying and underlying layers of pumiceous lapilli.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=239}} Water, presumably from glaciers and [[permafrost]] on the volcano, drove the phreatomagmatic activity.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|pp=305-306}} Water interaction was more intense during H1 than during the H2 and H3 eruptions, which may imply that the caldera collapse occurred during this eruption, causing effective magma-ice interaction.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=306}}
Ash from the H1 eruption fell south-southeast from the volcano, extending over all of southern Patagonia{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=14}} and part of [[Magallanes Province|Magallanes]].{{sfn|Stern|Weller|2012|p=878}} It has been recovered from lakes like [[Lago Cardiel]] and [[Laguna Potrok Aike]], peat bogs including at [[Puerto del Hambre]] and [[Punta Arenas]], and [[archaeological site]]s.{{sfn|Stern|2008|p=444}} More distant sites include [[Isla de los Estados]]{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=4}} and Siple Dome in [[West Antarctica]].{{sfn|Kurbatov|Zielinski|Dunbar|Mayewski|2006|p=14}} The Patagonian-Tierra del Fuego Tephra II originated in this eruption.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} The wide dispersal of the ash was either due to the [[eruption column]] exceeding {{convert|55|km}} height or to strong winds.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=300}} Similar to the 1991 eruption, the H1 eruption would have buried food and water resources and caused various health ailments.{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|pp=10-11}} This would have caused a collapse of the terrestrial ecosystems in Patagonia,{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=11}} possibly causing a lasting shift of [[guanaco]] populations,{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=23}} a population shift at [[Cueva de las Manos]],{{sfn|Aschero|2021|p=51}} and the extinction of [[human mitochondrial DNA]] lineages.{{sfn|Turbon|Arenas|Cuadras|2017|p=310}} More controversially,{{sfn|Charlin|2009|p=58}} the eruption may have caused a cessation of the southern Patagonian [[obsidian]] trade,{{sfn|Stern|2018|p=196}}{{sfn|Fernández|Ponce|Zangrando|Borromei|2020|p=214}} and a shift towards the use of coastal resources by people in Patagonia.{{sfn|Orquera|2005|p=110}}
====Impact on Tierra del Fuego ====
The green-brown tephra deposits in Tierra del Fuego were produced by this eruption.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=13}} On Tierra del Fuego, the H1 tephra covers an area exceeding {{convert|40000|km2}}.{{sfn|Stern|2008|p=451}} Thicknesses reach {{convert|4| to |20|cm|0}},{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=14}} thicker than deposits closer to the volcano.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=299}}
The H1 eruption had a severe impact on the environment of Tierra del Fuego, with the vegetation being buried by ash fall.{{sfn|Fernández|Ponce|Zangrando|Borromei|2020|p=210}}{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=16}} The impact on human populations in Tierra del Fuego would have been severe,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} possibly causing the total extinction of [[hunter-gatherer]]s on Tierra del Fuego{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=11}} or even of all human life on the island.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=28}} Vertebrates were decimated and large [[mammal]]s wiped out.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=15}} After the eruption, activities at the Túnel 1 archaeological site changed from a terrestrial lifestyle to one that relied on coastal food sources{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=9}} which were less vulnerable to volcanic impacts.{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=12}} The island may have been resettled over a millennium later by people arriving using [[bark canoe]]s. These immigrants reintroduced mammals such as guanacos on the island.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=26}}
=== H2 eruption: 4,200 BP ===
The H2 eruption occurred about 4,200 years{{efn|Older estimates of its age are 3600{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=239}} or 3920 [[BP]]{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} }} ago. Pumices form three or four distinct layers, which consist mostly of trachydacite and/or [[trachyrhyolite]].{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=301}}{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=239}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}}{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=142}} The eruption was smaller than the H1 eruption, but larger than the H3, reaching a volcanic explosivity index of six.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=301}} It or [[neoglacial]] climate change may have caused changes in the vegetation close to the volcano.{{sfn|Mardones|Gonzalez|King|Campos|2011|p=389}}
Ash layers have been found at various sites close to the volcano, with [[cryptotephra]] reaching the [[Falklands]].{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|pp=291-292}}{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}} The occurrence at Lago Quijada is the [[reference section]] for the H2 eruption.{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=3}} Unlike the H1 and H3 eruptions, the H2 ash was dispersed mainly to the east and at larger distances to the southeast, forming a wider deposit.{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=301}} It has been identified in the [[Los Toldos (Santa Cruz)|Los Toldos]], Cerro Tres Tetas and La María archaeological sites;{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}} evidence at the Los Toldos archaeological site indicates that humans left the area after the H2 eruption.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=12}}
=== H3 eruption: 1991 AD ===
[[File:GVP-04931.jpg|thumb|Cerro Hudson after the 1991 eruption|alt=A circular, ice-filled plain with a steaming pit. Ice is covered with grey ash and one dark lava (?) flow]]
The 1991 Plinian eruption is known as the H3 eruption.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} After a few hours of [[seismic]] activity, a [[phreatomagmatic eruption]] commenced on August 8 at 18:20 in the northwestern sector of the caldera.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=11}} The phreatomagmatic phase formed a {{convert|4|km|adj=on}} long fissure and a {{convert|400|m|adj=on}} wide crater. On August 12, a Plinian eruption formed a {{convert|800|m|adj=on}} wide crater in the southwestern sector. The eruption continued for the following three days.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} Seismic and [[fumarole|fumarolic]] activity continued for the next months,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|pp=25,27}} and small eruptions may have occurred in October.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}}
The initial phreatomagmatic eruption was basaltic.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}} The chemistry of the erupted rocks changed during the course of the eruption from trachyandesite to trachydacite,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} perhaps due to fractional crystallization of phenocrysts or [[amphibole]] and magma mixing.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=15}} Initially, basaltic magma rose in the edifice and entered a trachyandesitic reservoir at {{convert|2| to |3|km}} depth, until the stresses opened up another pathway along local-scale fractures. This formed the northwestern vent and associated lava flows. Later, the roof of the reservoir failed, allowing the trachyandesitic magma to ascend to the surface and form the southwestern vent.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=436}} The eruption may have been triggered by [[tectonic stress]] changes caused by the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake]].{{sfn|Marzocchi|Casarotti|Piersanti|2002|p=7}}
The eruption is the second-largest historic volcanic eruption in Chile, only behind the 1932 [[Quizapu]] eruption.{{sfn|Parra|Figueroa|1999|p=468}} With a volcanic explosivity index of 5,{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=7}} it is one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th century.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=420}} It formed a {{convert|12|km|adj=on}} high eruption column and [[pyroclastic flow]]s within the caldera.{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=12}} A {{convert|4|km|adj=on}} long lava flow was emplaced on the caldera ice and flowed down the Huemules River.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Photo Gallery}}{{sfn|Barr|Lynch|Mullan|De Siena|2018|p=193}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Photo Gallery}} Part of the ice cap melted.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=12}} A lahar with a volume of about {{convert|0.04| to |0.045|km3}} ran for {{convert|40|km}} down the Huemules River{{sfn|Iribarren Anacona|Mackintosh|Norton|2015|p=2}} to the Pacific Ocean.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=12}} Ash deposited by the volcano was eroded by rivers and redeposited in their [[river delta|deltas]], enlarging them.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} Wind-driven erosion of the ash in the [[semiarid]] region produced continued ash fall,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=27}} which was sometimes mistaken for renewed activity,{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:11}} and {{convert|1.5|m|adj=on}} thick wind-blown dust accumulations formed in some areas.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09}}
More than {{convert|4|km3|sigfig=1}} of tephra fell along two axes: A narrow northern one and a much wider and longer east-southeast trending axis from the volcano in southern [[Patagonia]] and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=420}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} The northern ash was produced by the phreatomagmatic phase and the southeastern one by the Plinian phase.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=240}} Ash fell over an area of about {{convert|150000|km2}} in Chile and Argentina,{{sfn|Parra|Figueroa|1999|p=468}} reaching as far as the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia]].{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=43}} The ash fall buried vegetation and roads and caused house roofs to collapse. Animals saw their pastures buried and food contaminated by ash, their wools weighed down, and people reported problems with breathing and eyesight owing to the irritating ash.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09}} Ailments{{efn|Not [[Fluoride toxicity|fluorosis]], as is commonly reported.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:10}}}} caused by the ash and preceding harsh winter killed about half of all grazing animals in the directly affected areas such as Argentina's [[Santa Cruz Province, Argentina|Santa Cruz Province]],{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09-10}} where damage exceeded 10,000,000 dollars.{{sfn|Perucca|Moreiras|2009|p=288}} Along with other climatic and economic crises, the Hudson eruption led to a severe depopulation in the region.{{sfn|Miotti|Salemme|Hermo|2022|p=426}}
==== Intercontinental spread of ash ====
Winds transported the plume towards [[Antarctica]] and in the westerlies surrounding the [[polar vortex]], circling the continent in a month{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=8}} and reaching Chile again after a week.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} Ash from the eruption was found in snow at the [[South Pole]], arriving there in December,{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=2}} in ice cores of [[East Antarctica]],{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=10}} and in various sites of the northern [[Antarctic Peninsula]], where it arrived in August.{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=9}} [[Aircraft]] noted the ash cloud as far as [[Melbourne]] in Australia.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} Particles from Hudson have been found in ice at [[Mount Everest]], [[Himalaya]].{{sfn|Malek|Eom|Hwang|Hur|2019|p=207}}
The 1991 eruption of Hudson took place in the same year as the [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo]].{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=1}} The Pinatubo [[aerosol]]s had already spread worldwide when Hudson erupted. Unlike the Pinatubo eruption, Hudson mostly produced volcanic ash which fell out more quickly.{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=2}} However, the Hudson cloud led to substantial [[ozone]] loss over Antarctica and had comparable effects in the southern hemisphere to the Pinatubo eruption.{{sfn|Case|Colarco|Toon|Aquila|2017}}
=== Other historical activity ===
There are reports of historical eruptions in the late 19th century, but only an 1891 eruption can be attributed to Hudson.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} There are single reports of eruptions in 1930{{sfn|Torrent|Herrera|Bustamante|2016|p=73}} and 1965.{{sfn|Lange|Cembrano|Rietbrock|Haberland|2008|p=16}} A crater in the centre-western sector of the caldera may have been active around 1973.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} A lahar in that year killed a number of animals and two shepherds; it may either be non-volcanic{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report CSLP 43-73}} or due to a [[subglacial eruption]]. Other lahars may have occurred in 1972 and 1979.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}}
On the morning of 12 August 1971, tremors heralded the onset of a new eruption.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}} It lasted for three days and reached a volcanic explosivity index of 3 to 4,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} smaller than the 1991 eruption.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} An eruption column rose {{convert|5| to |12|km|0}} above the volcano and deposited tephra to the east into the South Atlantic Ocean.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} Ashfall buried pastures{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report CSLP 80-71}} and left deposits in lakes of the Chonos Archipelago.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=244}} A [[lahar]] descended the Huemules River, killing at least five people and damaging houses and farms.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} The lahar dragged blocks of ice along,{{sfn|Iribarren Anacona|Mackintosh|Norton|2015|p=15}} swept the valley clear of trees and produced a [[pumice raft]] in the sea off the mouth of the Huemules River.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=303}} No pyroclastic flows formed during this eruption,{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}} while subglacial lava flows may{{sfn|Barr|Lynch|Mullan|De Siena|2018|p=193}} or may not have formed.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}}
During the 1990s, episodes of [[volcanic gas]] release killed animals in the Huemules valley. They do not appear to be linked to (visible) volcanic activity.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=11}}
The last eruption was in October 2011,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} and was preceded by increasing [[hydrothermal]]{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=16}} and [[seismic]] activity, the latter lasting for a few days.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12}} The eruption began on October 26 and ended on November 1.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}} Three vents formed in the southern sector of the caldera. Ash columns rose to almost {{convert|1|km|1}} altitude.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12}} Lahars ran along several valleys surrounding the volcano, probably caused by ice interacting with the hydrothermal system of the volcano.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=43}} Chilean authorities evacuated about 140 people from the region due to the threat from ash fall and lahars.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12}}
Between 1991 and 2008, uplift took place at the volcano. Initially at a pace of {{convert|5|cm/year|in/year|sigfig=1}}, after 2004 it decreased to a rate of {{convert|2|cm/year|in/year|sigfig=1}}.{{sfn|Rivera|Bown|2013|p=348}} The uplift was probably caused by the entry of new magma in Hudson's plumbing system.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}} Presently, shallow [[seismicity]] takes place under Hudson and south of it, between {{convert|0| to |10|km|0}} underground, and is probably related to volcanic activity.{{sfn|Agurto-Detzel|Rietbrock|Bataille|Miller|2014|p=8}}
== Hazards ==
The 1991 eruption has drawn attention to hazards stemming from Hudson and other Patagonian volcanoes.{{sfn|Mateo|2008|p=6}} About 84,000 people{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=41}} live within {{convert|50|km}} of Hudson.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=40}} Despite the low population density in the regions of Argentina downwind of Hudson, ash fall could cause serious impacts on farming and animal husbandry.{{sfn|Perucca|Moreiras|2009|p=288}}
Most eruptions led to tephra fallout around the volcano, with more intense eruptions producing pyroclastic flows outside of the caldera. [[Mudflow]]s caused by melting of ice or erosion of tephra and pyroclastic deposits have occurred in the Huemules and Ibáñez valleys.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=11}}
After the 1991 eruption of Hudson, the Argentine [[SEGEMAR]] initiated a monitoring program for Argentine volcanoes.{{sfn|Garcia|Badi|2021|p=23}} The Chilean [[SERNAGEOMIN]] published a volcano hazard map in 2014, which shows areas threatened by lahars, lava flows, pyroclastic fall, pyroclastic flows, tephra fallout and volcanic bombs.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=44}} According to the map, the highest hazards exist in the Huemules and Sorpresas valleys, in the caldera and its immediate surroundings. Other high-risk areas are the northern, southwestern and southeastern slopes of the volcano. Medium hazards occur in the rest of the valleys around Mount Hudson, with low hazard areas in the more distant valleys east of the volcano.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=27}} {{as of|2023}}, the municipal planning of the municipalities on the Chilean side close to the volcano largely ignores volcanic hazards.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=49}}
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
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{{refend}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |title=La erupcion del volcan Hudson (Andes Patagonicos) en agosto 1991 |first=Peter René |last=Bitschene |publisher=Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco |language=en |year=1995 |ref=none |oclc=883455940}}
{{Andean volcanoes}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hudson, Mount}}
[[Category:20th-century volcanic events]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Mountains of Aysén Region]]
[[Category:South Volcanic Zone]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Chile]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]
[[Category:VEI-6 volcanoes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Aysén Region]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Mountain in Chile}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Mount Hudson
| other_name = Cerro Hudson
| photo = Cerro_hudson.jpg
| photo_caption = Aerial photo from 1991
| elevation_m = 1,905
| map = Chile
| elevation_ref =
| prominence =
| location = Chile
| range = [[Andes]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|45.92|S|72.95|W|type:mountain_region:CL-AI|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = {{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}}
| type = [[Caldera]]
| age =
| volcanic_arc/belt = [[Andean Volcanic Belt#Southern Volcanic Zone|Southern Volcanic Zone]]
| last_eruption = 2011
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
| etymology = Named after [[Francisco Hudson]]
| photo_alt = A steaming depression, surrounded by dark ash deposits, in the middle of a circular ice field
| map_alt = Hudson lies in southernmost Chile
}}
'''Mount Hudson''' ({{lang-es|'''Volcán Hudson'''}}, {{lang-es|'''Cerro Hudson'''}}, {{lang-es|'''Monte Hudson'''|label=none}}) is a [[volcano]] in the rugged mountains of southern [[Chile]]. Lying in the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] of the [[Andes]], it was formed by the [[subduction]] of the oceanic [[Nazca Plate]] under the continental [[South American Plate]]. The Nazca Plate ends there at the [[Chile Triple Junction]]; south of Hudson is a smaller volcano, followed by a long gap without active volcanoes that separates the Southern Volcanic Zone from the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]]. Hudson has the form of a {{convert|10|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} volcanic [[caldera]] filled with ice. The Huemules [[Glacier]] emerges from the northwestern side of the caldera. The volcano has erupted rocks ranging from [[basalt]] to [[rhyolite]], but large parts of the caldera are formed by non-volcanic rocks.
The volcano erupted numerous times in the late [[Pleistocene]]{{efn|The epoch between 2,58 million and 11,700 years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}} and [[Holocene]]{{efn|The epoch beginning 11,700 years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}, forming widespread [[tephra]] deposits both in the proximity of Hudson and in the wider region, and is the most active volcano in the region. The last eruption was in 2011.
Four large eruptions took place in 17,300–17,440 [[Before present|BP]] ("H0 eruption"), 7,750 BP ("H1 eruption"), 4,200 BP ("H2 eruption") and in 1991 [[AD]] ("H3 eruption"); the second is among the most intense volcanic eruptions in [[South America]] during the [[Holocene]]. A smaller eruption occurred in 1971. The 7,750 BP and 1991 eruptions had a substantial impact on the human population of Patagonia and (for the 7,750 BP eruption) [[Tierra del Fuego]]: The 7,750 BP eruption devastated the local ecosystem and may have caused substantial shifts in human settlement and lifestyle. During the 1991 eruption, [[volcanic ash]] covered a large area in Chile and neighbouring [[Argentina]], causing high mortality in farm animals, aggravating an existing economic crisis, and depositing ash as far as [[Antarctica]].
== Geography and geomorphology ==
Mount Hudson lies in the Andes of southern Chile,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} northwest of [[Lago Buenos Aires]].{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=2}} The name "Hudson" refers to [[Francisco Hudson]], a [[Chilean Navy]] captain and [[hydrography|hydrographer]].{{sfn|Sánchez|1905|p=33}} Another name of the volcano is Cerro de los Ventisqueros.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=1}}{{efn|One source claims that it's technically the correct name of the volcano, giving the name "Hudson" to a different mountain.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report CSLP 80-71}}}} Politically, Mount Hudson is in the [[Aysen Province]]{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=1}} of Chile's [[Aysen Region]].{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=6}} Most of the volcano is in the [[Chilean municipalities|Chilean municipality]] of Aysen; the eastern and southern parts are in the municipalities Coihaique and Rio Ibáñez, respectively.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=40}} Owing to its remoteness and the dense vegetation at its foot, the volcano is poorly studied;{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} it was recognized as a volcano only{{efn|While it is often stated that the 1971 eruption led to its recognition as a volcano,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} an unpublished report about the caldera was written in 1970.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=3}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=291}}}} in 1970.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}} The closest cities are [[Puerto Aysen]] {{convert|58|km}} north-northeast and [[Coihaique]] {{convert|75|km}} northeast; the [[Carretera Austral]] [[highway]] passes {{convert|30|km}} from the volcano.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} The volcano can be accessed either from the sea along the Huemules River valley or by land via the valley of the Blanco River from Lago Elizalde-Lago Claro.{{sfn|Fuenzalida-Ponce|1974|p=79}} Small populations, mostly farmers, live in the surrounding valleys.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=7}}
The [[Andean Volcanic Belt]] includes four volcanic zones separated by gaps without recent volcanoes. From north to south they are the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Central Volcanic Zone]], the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] (SVZ) and the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]] (AVZ).{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} Hudson is the second-southernmost volcano of the SVZ, after [[Río Murta (volcano)|Rio Murta]]; erroneously,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|pp=209,216}} it is often referred to as the southernmost.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}}{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} Farther south there is the {{convert|350|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} Patagonian Volcanic Gap{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=420}} in the Andean Volcanic Belt,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} which separates Hudson from the Austral Volcanic Zone and its first volcano, [[Lautaro (volcano)|Lautaro]].{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=7}} The next volcanoes to the north are [[Mate Grande]] {{convert|35|km}}{{sfn|De Pascale|Froude|Penna|Hermanns|2021|p=9}} and [[Cerro Macá|Macá]] and [[Cay]] {{convert|95|km}} from Hudson,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} then [[Mentolat]] and the [[Puyuhuapi (volcanic group)|Puyuhuapi volcanic field]].{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=2}}
The volcano is a {{convert|10|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide|sigfig=1}} ice-filled [[caldera]]{{efn|It appears to consist of two or three nested calderas.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 1}}}} that rises {{convert|1000| to |1200|m}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} Only the western and southern margins are well-defined.{{sfn|Parra|Figueroa|1999|p=468}} The highest point reaches {{convert|1905|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} The edifice consists partly of volcanic rocks and partly of uplifted [[basement (geology)|basement]],{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} and has an eroded appearance,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} with steep valleys cutting as much as {{convert|1|km|1}} into the outer reaches of the volcano.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} The total volume of the volcano is about {{convert|147|km3}}, larger than other SVZ volcanoes,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=5}} and it covers an area of about {{convert|300|km2}}.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=7}} [[Cinder cone|Cinder]] and [[spatter cone]]s reach heights of {{convert|200| to |300|m}} and are sources of [[lava flow]]s outside of the caldera, especially in the Sorpresa Sur valley.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} There are two cones northeast of the caldera and one in the far southwest.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=2}} The landscape of the Andes around Hudson is formed by numerous mountains (including the Cerros Hudson {{convert|12|km}} south of the volcano) with deep, [[glacial]]ly carved valleys.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} Thick [[andosol|volcanic soils]] occur in the area.{{sfn|Vandekerkhove|Bertrand|Reid|Bartels|2016|p=504}}
The caldera is filled with about {{convert|2.5|km3|sigfig=1}} of {{convert|40|m|adj=on}} thick [[ice]],{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} forming an ice surface at about {{convert|1505| to |1520|m|sigfig=3}} elevation. Ice flows out of the northwestern margin of the caldera and forms the Ventisquero de los Huemules [[Glacier]].{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} The Huemules Glacier is the largest glacier of Mount Hudson, being {{convert|11|km}} long,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} and the headwater of the Huemules River. The glacier is covered by [[tephra]] and its surface is at too low an altitude for the tephra to be buried under snow;{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=212}}{{sfn|Rivera|Bown|2013|p=350}} thus from the air the glacier looks like a lava flow.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} A small [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] is at its beginning and occupies a crater of the 1991 eruption.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} Most of the ice in the caldera was destroyed by the 1971 eruption, but by 1979 it had built up again. During the 1991 eruption, cones surrounded by [[crevasse]]s and small lakes formed in the ice. The recovery of the ice after the 1991 eruption was slower, and by 2002 Huemules [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|was retreating]].{{sfn|Masiokas|Rivera|Espizua|Villalba|2009|p=245}}{{sfn|Rivera|Bown|2013|p=350}} During eruptions, pyroclastic material and lava can melt the ice.{{sfn|Barr|Lynch|Mullan|De Siena|2018|p=196}} Other glaciers emanating from the ice cap are the Desplayado, Bayo, Ibáñez, El Frio, Sorpresa Sur and Sorpresa Norte glaciers. They were up to {{convert|3|km}} long in 1974 but have retreated since then.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}} Together with the [[Queulat National Park|Queulat Ice Cap]], the Hudson glaciers make up a large part of the regional glacier inventory,{{sfn|Cooper|Thorndycraft|Davies|Palmer|2021|p=663}} and have left well-preserved [[moraine]]s.{{sfn|Cooper|Thorndycraft|Davies|Palmer|2021|p=674}} The path of some of the glaciers may be influenced by local tectonic [[lineament]]s.{{sfn|Fuenzalida-Ponce|1974|p=79}} Numerous rivers originate on Hudson; clockwise from north to south they include the Rio Desplayado to the north, the Rio Bayo to the east, the [[Ibáñez River|Rio Ibáñez]], the Rio Sorpresa Sur, Rio Sorpresa Norte all to the southeast, and the Huemules River to the northwest.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=6}} Volcanic activity might be responsible for fluctuations in the discharge of the Huemules River.{{sfn|Fuenzalida|Espinosa|1974|p=1}}
== Geology ==
[[File:Subduction-en.svg|thumb|Schematic of a subduction zone|alt=During subduction, a tectonic plate sinks underneath another one and produces melts that form volcanoes]]
Off the western coast of South America, the [[Nazca Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]] at a rate - at Hudson's latitude - of about {{convert|9|cm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} This subduction is responsible for volcanism in the SVZ{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} and the rest of the Andean Volcanic Belt{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} except for the AVZ, where the [[Antarctic Plate]] subducts.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}}
West of Hudson and the [[Taitao Peninsula]],{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} the [[Chile Ridge]] enters the [[Peru-Chile Trench]], forming the [[Chile Triple Junction]]. The subduction of the ridge has produced a [[slab window]] in the downgoing [[Slab (geology)|slab]], causing volcanism to cease in the [[Miocene]] and a gap to open up between the SVZ and the AVZ.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} The collision began 14 million years ago; since then, the triple junction{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} and the volcanic gap are migrating north.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} Several [[fracture zone]]s cut through the downgoing plate,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=209}} one of which (either the Taitao or the Darwin fracture zone) may project under Hudson.{{sfn|Stern|Naranjo|2015|p=426}} South of the volcano, the Tres Montes Fracture Zone forms the northern boundary of the slab window.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=229}} The subducted plate is still young and hot.{{sfn|Kilian|Ippach|Lopez-Escobar|1993|p=386}} The position of Hudson just east of the triple junction may be responsible for the unusually high activity of the volcano.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=22}} Older volcanism in the region includes [[back-arc]] volcanoes in Patagonia and [[adakitic]] rocks in the Taitao Peninsula that were emplaced during the last 4 million years.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=210}}
Hudson rises from the [[North Patagonian Batholith|Patagonian Batholith]], a {{convert|1000|km|sigfig=1|adj=on}} long [[Formation (geology)|formation]] made up of [[intrusive rock]]s ([[diorite]], [[gabbro]], [[granite]], [[granodiorite]] and [[tonalite]]{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=9}}) that was emplaced during the [[Cretaceous]]{{efn|The epoch between about 145 and 66 million years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}-[[Neogene]]{{efn|The epoch beginning 23.03 million years ago{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=212}} The [[Crust (geology)|crust]] under the volcano is about {{convert|30|km}} thick.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=238}} The volcanism in the SVZ is heavily influenced by [[Fault (geology)|fault]]s, including the [[Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone|Liquine-Ofqui Fault Zone]] (LOFZ) which runs parallel to the volcanic belt.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=211}} In the Hudson area, the LOFZ is formed by two branches connected through perpendicular [[Fault (geology)|fault]]s{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=229}} and lies {{convert|30|km}} west of the volcano.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} The LOFZ moves at a rate of about {{convert|1| to |2|cm/year|in/year|sigfig=1}} in the area.{{sfn|De Pascale|Froude|Penna|Hermanns|2021|p=1}} Recently active faults around the volcano can be recognized in the vegetation.{{sfn|Fuenzalida-Ponce|1974|p=80}}
=== Composition and magma plumbing system ===
Hudson has erupted a wide range of volcanic rocks.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=255}} The cones outside the caldera have produced [[basaltic andesite]] and [[andesite]].{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} The Hudson rocks are a [[potassium]]-rich [[calc-alkaline]] rock suite straddling the alkaline-subalkaline line.{{sfn|Stern|Naranjo|2015|p=424}}{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=216}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=12}} Rocks contain only a few [[phenocryst]]s,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} including [[andesine]], [[apatite]], [[clinopyroxene]], [[ilmenite]], [[oligoclase]], [[olivine]], [[orthopyroxene]], [[plagioclase]] and [[titanomagnetite]].{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|pp=215-216}} The composition of Hudson rocks diverges from that of other SVZ volcanoes,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=222}} with higher concentrations of [[iron oxide]], [[sodium oxide]], [[titanium oxide]] and [[incompatible element]]s.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}}
The cone lavas include [[mid-ocean ridge basalt]] and [[ocean island basalt]] components as well as [[Crust (geology)|crust]]- or sediment-derived components,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|pp=225-226}} while the caldera magmas formed through [[Fractional crystallization (geology)|fractional crystallization]],{{efn|Including [[amphibole]]{{sfn|Stern|Naranjo|2015|p=426}}}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}} possibly along with the assimilation of crustal material.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=227}} The three major Holocene eruptions produced uniform magmas with temperatures of {{convert|943| to |972|C}}, a few percent water by weight and a [[trachyandesitic]] to [[Trachydacite|trachydacitic]] composition.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=261}} The H2 eruption led to a change of magma chemistry to more [[mafic]] compositions, followed by a reversal during the last 1,000 years.{{sfn|Lachowycz|Fontijn|Smith|Pyle|2016}}
Magma genesis processes can be complex in slab window areas, as melts derived from the [[asthenosphere]] that ascended through the window can take part.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} Magmas ascending into Hudson halt about {{convert|6| to |24|km|0}} underground and undergo a first phase of differentiation. Later the magma ascends into shallower reservoirs{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=262}} and is then stored at a few kilometres depth before the large Holocene eruptions.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=261}} During historical eruptions, the vents opened up in the southwestern sector of the caldera.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=14}} Some magmas can bypass the magma chamber and directly ascend to the surface through [[Fault (geology)|fault]]s, forming the volcanic cones surrounding Hudson.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=228}}
== Climate and vegetation ==
The climate at Hudson is [[oceanic climate|oceanic]], with mean annual temperatures of {{convert|8| to |10|C}}. Precipitation at the coast reaches {{convert|3000|mm|ft|sigfig=1}} per year, increasing to {{convert|10000|mm|ft|sigfig=1}} in the Andes and declining to {{convert|800|mm}} in the eastern valleys.{{sfn|Garvey|Carrasco|Solís|Bortolaso|2023|p=367}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}} Precipitation is brought by westerly winds and enhanced on the western slopes of the Andes by [[orographic precipitation]], while the eastern slopes are within the [[rainshadow]].{{sfn|Simi|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|Vilanova|2017|p=846}} Winds usually blow from the north or northwest and are strong; easterly winds are rare.{{sfn|Garvey|Carrasco|Solís|Bortolaso|2023|p=367}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}}
The region is covered by [[temperate rainforest]]s formed by [[conifer]]s, [[broadleaf tree]]s and [[beech]]es (''[[Nothofagus pumilio]]'').{{sfn|Garvey|Carrasco|Solís|Bortolaso|2023|p=367}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}} [[Magellanic moorland]]s with [[cushion plant]]s occur in the coastal areas. To the east there is a transition to the Patagonian [[steppe]] with grasses, herbs and scrubs. Since the 19th century, the vegetation has been altered by human intervention.{{sfn|Simi|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|Vilanova|2017|p=847}}<!--{{sfn|Miotti|Salemme|Hermo|2022|p=74}} for neoglaciation--> South of Hudson is the [[North Patagonian Ice Field]].{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|208213|p=83}}
== Eruption history ==
Hudson has been active for more than one million years.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} The northeastern sector of the volcano is older than the southeastern, which has yielded ages of 120,000–100,000 years,{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 2}} but the incomplete [[stratigraphy]] of the edifice, which is largely covered with ice, precludes establishing a proper history of its growth.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: EVOLUTION OF HUDSON AND LAUTARO VOLCANOES HUDSON VOLCANO}} There are few [[tephra]]s from the [[Pleistocene]]–[[Holocene]] transition time close to the volcano, but several have been found in [[marine core]]s west of Hudson.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=150}}
During the [[last glacial maximum]], Hudson was at the centre of a large [[ice sheet]] that covered the entire region{{sfn|Mardones|Gonzalez|King|Campos|2011|p=376}} with ice more than {{convert|1|km}} thick.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|208213|p=84}} Tephra from its eruptions fell on the ice and was carried away by [[glacier]]s, ending up in their moraines.{{sfn|Mardones|Gonzalez|King|Campos|2011|p=381}} The deglaciation that began 17,900 years ago{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=2}} may have enhanced volcanic activity;{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|pp=13-14}} the largest eruptions of Hudson, [[Llaima]] and [[Villarrica]] took place at that time.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|208213|p=84}} The melting of the ice would have depressurized the buried magma systems, thus enhancing volcanic activity immediately after deglaciation.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|208213|p=87}} After deglaciation was complete, the volumes of the intense Hudson eruptions decreased.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|pp=13-14}} On the other hand, glaciation has removed most of the volcanic record of Patagonia pre-dating 14,500 years ago.{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=99}}
=== Holocene ===
Numerous [[explosive eruption]]s took place during the Holocene,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} including three intense eruptions{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} among the largest of Holocene South America.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=237}} There is a regularity, with intense explosive eruptions occurring about every 3,870 years,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} but their volumes have decreased over time and erupted rocks have become less mafic.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}} Smaller [[Plinian eruption]]s occur about every 500 to 1000 years.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 20:02}} Having erupted 55 times during the past 22,000 years,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=22}} Mount Hudson is the most active volcano in Patagonia{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=291}} and of the southernmost SVZ.{{efn|Formerly it was thought that it had been largely inactive during the past 10,000 years.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}}}}{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=6}}
The Hudson caldera probably formed during the Holocene and grew incrementally.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}} Pre-caldera outcrops are rare and consist of [[breccia]]s formed by [[hyaloclastite]], [[lahar]]s{{efn|A lahar is a volcanic [[mudflow]]{{sfn|Bobrowsky|2013|loc=Lahar}}}}, mafic [[lava]]s and [[pyroclastic rock]]s; they occur mostly on the northeastern and southern sides of the caldera.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=212}} Outside of the caldera, especially to the south, are widespread [[pyroclastic fall]] deposits formed by banded [[pumice]]. Lahar deposits contain blocks of lava embedded within a fine-grained substrate.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=213}} An [[ignimbrite]] probably associated with the formation of the caldera occurs all around Hudson. A Holocene lava flow extends along the Huemules valley and is {{convert|1| to |5|m|ft|0}} thick.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 1}} The flow may be either 1,000 or 13,000{{efn|By [[argon-argon dating]].{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 2}}}} years old;{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|pp=9-10}} it was possibly the product of multiple eruptions.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=10}} The volcanic cones outside of the caldera are weathered and covered by vegetation; they are of Holocene age.{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=Hudson Volcano 1}} Other geologic processes such as [[glacial erosion]] have modified the appearance of the Hudson volcano.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=231}}
Pyroclastic fall and tephra deposits{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} from Hudson and other volcanoes have been identified in marine cores in the [[Pacific Ocean]], sediments in lakes and [[peat bog]]s,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=1}} in [[soil]]s,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} and potentially in [[Antarctic]] [[ice core]]s.{{sfn|Kurbatov|Zielinski|Dunbar|Mayewski|2006|p=7}} Such tephra layers can be used to compare the timing of events across wide regions.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=241}} Tephra particles from Hudson have varying shapes and colours, but similar compositions.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=11}} The closest tephra record to Hudson is the Laguna Miranda record {{convert|50|km|sigfig=1}} away, which shows on average one tephra layer every 225 years although it only records eruptions that distributed ash in the direction of the lake.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=254}} Several Hudson tephra layers from Juncal Alto {{convert|92|km}} have been named T1 through T9,{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}} and another set from lakes in the [[Chonos Archipelago]] and Taitao Peninsula is named HW1 through HW7.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=247}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Selected tephra layers from Hudson
!Date BP,{{Efn|Conversion of CE to BP by adding 1950, and from AD by subtracting the AD from 1950}} sources{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=253}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}} unless given otherwise, margins of error omitted
!Taitao marine core tephra{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
!Chonos Archipelago lacustrine tephra{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=253}}
!Juncal Alto{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=292}} tephra layers{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}}
!Notes
|-
|19,860
|TL12
|
|
|
|-
|19,660
|TL11
|
|
|
|-
|19,600
|TL10
|
|
|
|-
|19,450
|TL9
|
|
|
|-
|18,900
|TL8
|
|
|
|-
|18,750
|TL7
|
|
|
|-
|17,350
|TL6
|
|
|
|-
|16,100/14,560/14,533{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|TL5{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW1{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|14,110/13,890/13,798{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|TL4{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW2{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|12,000/11,060/11,428{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|TL3{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW3{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|10,750
|TL2
|
|
|Tentatively assigned to Hudson{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|-
|6,910/7,765{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T1
|Estimated volume of {{convert|1|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|6,700/7,540
|
|HW4
|T2
|H1 eruption{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=250}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}}
|-
|5,840/7,221{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T3
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.1|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|4,200/4,717{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T4
|Estimated volume of {{convert|1|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|3,840
|
|HW5
|T5
|H2 eruption{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}}
|-
|2,740/2,558{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|HW6
|
|Also found southeast of the volcano{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2015|p=6}} and with an estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|2,070/2,054{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T6
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.5|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}} Also found in the [[Talos Dome]], Antarctica{{sfn|Narcisi|Petit|Delmonte|Scarchilli|2012|p=60}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=297}}
|-
|1,920/1,560
|TL1{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|HW7{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=104}}
|
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.05|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}} The attribution of a tephra layer in the [[Talos Dome]] of Antarctica is questionable.{{sfn|Del Carlo|Di Roberto|D'Orazio|Petrelli|2018|p=166}}
|-
|1,090/1,072{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T7
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.1|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
|210/252{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|
|
|T8
|Estimated volume of {{convert|0.1|km3}}.{{sfn|Watt|Pyle|Mather|2013|p=82}}
|-
| -21 (1971 AD)
|
|
|T9
|
|}
An uncertain eruption may have occurred in 8,010 [[Before Common Era|BC]].{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}} The 1,000 years ago date of the Huemules lava flow may correlate it to a mafic eruption 1,000 years ago, which also deposited tephra east and northeast from the volcano.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=8}} Tephra layers from 1035 [[Common Era|AD]]{{sfn|Koffman|Goldstein|Winckler|Kaplan|2023|p=6}} and 9,216 BC in the [[Siple Dome]] of Antarctica have been attributed to Hudson, but for the older eruption there is no evidence in South America of an appropriately sized event.{{sfn|Del Carlo|Di Roberto|D'Orazio|Petrelli|2018|p=167}} The Las Guanacas cave {{convert|100|km}} southeast of Hudson preserves ash from Hudson more than 10,000 years old. On the Taitao Peninsula, tephra layers have been attributed to two eruptions in 11,910 and 9,960 years before present. These are isolated occurrences, indicating that they are not the products of very intense eruptions that would be expected to leave widespread deposits.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=305}} Westward spread of Hudson tephras was more common in the earliest Holocene, when the [[Southern Hemisphere]] [[westerlies]] were located north of Hudson.{{sfn|Carel|Siani|Delpech|2011|p=109}}
== Significant eruptions and recent activity ==
=== H0 eruption: 17,300–17,440 BP ===
The H0 eruption took place between 17,440–17,300 BP{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=9}} during late glacial times.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} It is the largest known eruption of Hudson, yielding more than {{convert|20|km3}}{{efn|Which may be an overestimate.{{sfn|Bertrand|Daga|Bedert|Fontijn|2014|p=2571}}}} of tephra, and may have initiated the growth of the caldera.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=13}} The eruption occurred during deglaciation and was probably caused by the unloading of the magmatic system, when the overlying ice melted.{{sfn|Mora|Tassara|2019|p=1556}} The eruption occurred in several stages that yielded distinct rock compositions,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=6}} and like the 1991 AD eruption it included two distinct chemistries.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=12}} [[Basalt]] and [[trachyandesite]] were the dominant components.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}}
The tephra was emplaced northeastward. Its thickness exceeded {{convert|50|cm}} up to present-day Coihaique and the border with Argentina.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=8}} Tephra from the H0 eruption has been found in Lago Churasco, Lago Élida, Lago Mellizas, Lago Quijada, Lago Toro, Lago Shaman and Lago Unco northeast of Hudson.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|pp=7,8,13}} After the eruption had ended, winds redeposited the tephras over distances of {{convert|400|km}}.{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=152}}
=== H1 eruption: 7,750 BP ===
The largest Holocene eruption of Hudson{{snd}}and the largest in the southern Andes{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=237}}{{snd}}took place in 7,750{{efn|Older date estimates are 8260{{sfn|Stern|Weller|2012|p=878}} or 6700 [[BP]].{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}}}} BP,{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=13}} and is known as the H1 eruption.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} It produced about {{convert|18|km3}} of trachydacitic or trachyandesitic rocks,{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=215}}{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=142}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}} thus reaching a [[volcanic explosivity index]] of 6.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=300}} A [[mass wasting]] deposit in the [[Aysen Fjord]] and the ignimbrite surrounding Hudson probably came from this eruption.{{sfn|Vanneste|Wils|Van Daele|2018|p=9862}}{{sfn|Orihashi|Naranjo|Motoki|Sumino|2004|loc=DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: EVOLUTION OF HUDSON AND LAUTARO VOLCANOES HUDSON VOLCANO}} The tephra deposits have three layers; an intermediary aggregate [[lapilli]] formed through [[phreatomagmatic]] activity from a tall eruption column, and two overlying and underlying layers of pumiceous lapilli.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=239}} Water, presumably from glaciers and [[permafrost]] on the volcano, drove the phreatomagmatic activity.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|pp=305-306}} Water interaction was more intense during H1 than during the H2 and H3 eruptions, which may imply that the caldera collapse occurred during this eruption, causing effective magma-ice interaction.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=306}}
Ash from the H1 eruption fell south-southeast from the volcano, extending over all of southern Patagonia{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=14}} and part of [[Magallanes Province|Magallanes]].{{sfn|Stern|Weller|2012|p=878}} It has been recovered from lakes like [[Lago Cardiel]] and [[Laguna Potrok Aike]], peat bogs including at [[Puerto del Hambre]] and [[Punta Arenas]], and [[archaeological site]]s.{{sfn|Stern|2008|p=444}} More distant sites include [[Isla de los Estados]]{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=4}} and Siple Dome in [[West Antarctica]].{{sfn|Kurbatov|Zielinski|Dunbar|Mayewski|2006|p=14}} The Patagonian-Tierra del Fuego Tephra II originated in this eruption.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} The wide dispersal of the ash was either due to the [[eruption column]] exceeding {{convert|55|km}} height or to strong winds.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=300}} Similar to the 1991 eruption, the H1 eruption would have buried food and water resources and caused various health ailments.{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|pp=10-11}} This would have caused a collapse of the terrestrial ecosystems in Patagonia,{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=11}} possibly causing a lasting shift of [[guanaco]] populations,{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=23}} a population shift at [[Cueva de las Manos]],{{sfn|Aschero|2021|p=51}} and the extinction of [[human mitochondrial DNA]] lineages.{{sfn|Turbon|Arenas|Cuadras|2017|p=310}} More controversially,{{sfn|Charlin|2009|p=58}} the eruption may have caused a cessation of the southern Patagonian [[obsidian]] trade,{{sfn|Stern|2018|p=196}}{{sfn|Fernández|Ponce|Zangrando|Borromei|2020|p=214}} and a shift towards the use of coastal resources by people in Patagonia.{{sfn|Orquera|2005|p=110}}
====Impact on Tierra del Fuego ====
The green-brown tephra deposits in Tierra del Fuego were produced by this eruption.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=13}} On Tierra del Fuego, the H1 tephra covers an area exceeding {{convert|40000|km2}}.{{sfn|Stern|2008|p=451}} Thicknesses reach {{convert|4| to |20|cm|0}},{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=14}} thicker than deposits closer to the volcano.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=299}}
The H1 eruption had a severe impact on the environment of Tierra del Fuego, with the vegetation being buried by ash fall.{{sfn|Fernández|Ponce|Zangrando|Borromei|2020|p=210}}{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=16}} The impact on human populations in Tierra del Fuego would have been severe,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} possibly causing the total extinction of [[hunter-gatherer]]s on Tierra del Fuego{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=11}} or even of all human life on the island.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=28}} Vertebrates were decimated and large [[mammal]]s wiped out.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=15}} After the eruption, activities at the Túnel 1 archaeological site changed from a terrestrial lifestyle to one that relied on coastal food sources{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=9}} which were less vulnerable to volcanic impacts.{{sfn|Prieto|Stern|Estévez|2013|p=12}} The island may have been resettled over a millennium later by people arriving using [[bark canoe]]s. These immigrants reintroduced mammals such as guanacos on the island.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=26}}
=== H2 eruption: 4,200 BP ===
The H2 eruption occurred about 4,200 years{{efn|Older estimates of its age are 3600{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=239}} or 3920 [[BP]]{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=3}} }} ago. Pumices form three or four distinct layers, which consist mostly of trachydacite and/or [[trachyrhyolite]].{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=301}}{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=239}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=16}}{{sfn|Smith|Smith|Fontijn|Gebhardt|2019|p=142}} The eruption was smaller than the H1 eruption, but larger than the H3, reaching a volcanic explosivity index of six.{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=301}} It or [[neoglacial]] climate change may have caused changes in the vegetation close to the volcano.{{sfn|Mardones|Gonzalez|King|Campos|2011|p=389}}
Ash layers have been found at various sites close to the volcano, with [[cryptotephra]] reaching the [[Falklands]].{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|pp=291-292}}{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}} The occurrence at Lago Quijada is the [[reference section]] for the H2 eruption.{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=3}} Unlike the H1 and H3 eruptions, the H2 ash was dispersed mainly to the east and at larger distances to the southeast, forming a wider deposit.{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}}{{sfn|Naranjo|Stern|1998|p=301}} It has been identified in the [[Los Toldos (Santa Cruz)|Los Toldos]], Cerro Tres Tetas and La María archaeological sites;{{sfn|Panaretos|Albert|Thomas|Turney|2021|p=4}} evidence at the Los Toldos archaeological site indicates that humans left the area after the H2 eruption.{{sfn|Franklin|2022|p=12}}
=== H3 eruption: 1991 AD ===
[[File:GVP-04931.jpg|thumb|Cerro Hudson after the 1991 eruption|alt=A circular, ice-filled plain with a steaming pit. Ice is covered with grey ash and one dark lava (?) flow]]
The 1991 Plinian eruption is known as the H3 eruption.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} After a few hours of [[seismic]] activity, a [[phreatomagmatic eruption]] commenced on August 8 at 18:20 in the northwestern sector of the caldera.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=11}} The phreatomagmatic phase formed a {{convert|4|km|adj=on}} long fissure and a {{convert|400|m|adj=on}} wide crater. On August 12, a Plinian eruption formed a {{convert|800|m|adj=on}} wide crater in the southwestern sector. The eruption continued for the following three days.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} Seismic and [[fumarole|fumarolic]] activity continued for the next months,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|pp=25,27}} and small eruptions may have occurred in October.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}}
The initial phreatomagmatic eruption was basaltic.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}} The chemistry of the erupted rocks changed during the course of the eruption from trachyandesite to trachydacite,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} perhaps due to fractional crystallization of phenocrysts or [[amphibole]] and magma mixing.{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=15}} Initially, basaltic magma rose in the edifice and entered a trachyandesitic reservoir at {{convert|2| to |3|km}} depth, until the stresses opened up another pathway along local-scale fractures. This formed the northwestern vent and associated lava flows. Later, the roof of the reservoir failed, allowing the trachyandesitic magma to ascend to the surface and form the southwestern vent.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=436}} The eruption may have been triggered by [[tectonic stress]] changes caused by the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake]].{{sfn|Marzocchi|Casarotti|Piersanti|2002|p=7}}
The eruption is the second-largest historic volcanic eruption in Chile, only behind the 1932 [[Quizapu]] eruption.{{sfn|Parra|Figueroa|1999|p=468}} With a volcanic explosivity index of 5,{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=7}} it is one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th century.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=420}} It formed a {{convert|12|km|adj=on}} high eruption column and [[pyroclastic flow]]s within the caldera.{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=12}} A {{convert|4|km|adj=on}} long lava flow was emplaced on the caldera ice and flowed down the Huemules River.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Photo Gallery}}{{sfn|Barr|Lynch|Mullan|De Siena|2018|p=193}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Photo Gallery}} Part of the ice cap melted.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=12}} A lahar with a volume of about {{convert|0.04| to |0.045|km3}} ran for {{convert|40|km}} down the Huemules River{{sfn|Iribarren Anacona|Mackintosh|Norton|2015|p=2}} to the Pacific Ocean.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=12}} Ash deposited by the volcano was eroded by rivers and redeposited in their [[river delta|deltas]], enlarging them.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} Wind-driven erosion of the ash in the [[semiarid]] region produced continued ash fall,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=27}} which was sometimes mistaken for renewed activity,{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:11}} and {{convert|1.5|m|adj=on}} thick wind-blown dust accumulations formed in some areas.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09}}
More than {{convert|4|km3|sigfig=1}} of tephra fell along two axes: A narrow northern one and a much wider and longer east-southeast trending axis from the volcano in southern [[Patagonia]] and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2009|p=420}}{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=5}} The northern ash was produced by the phreatomagmatic phase and the southeastern one by the Plinian phase.{{sfn|Kratzmann|Carey|Scasso|Naranjo|2010|p=240}} Ash fell over an area of about {{convert|150000|km2}} in Chile and Argentina,{{sfn|Parra|Figueroa|1999|p=468}} reaching as far as the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia]].{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=43}} The ash fall buried vegetation and roads and caused house roofs to collapse. Animals saw their pastures buried and food contaminated by ash, their wools weighed down, and people reported problems with breathing and eyesight owing to the irritating ash.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09}} Ailments{{efn|Not [[Fluoride toxicity|fluorosis]], as is commonly reported.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:10}}}} caused by the ash and preceding harsh winter killed about half of all grazing animals in the directly affected areas such as Argentina's [[Santa Cruz Province, Argentina|Santa Cruz Province]],{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09-10}} where damage exceeded 10,000,000 dollars.{{sfn|Perucca|Moreiras|2009|p=288}} Along with other climatic and economic crises, the Hudson eruption led to a severe depopulation in the region.{{sfn|Miotti|Salemme|Hermo|2022|p=426}}
==== Intercontinental spread of ash ====
Winds transported the plume towards [[Antarctica]] and in the westerlies surrounding the [[polar vortex]], circling the continent in a month{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=8}} and reaching Chile again after a week.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} Ash from the eruption was found in snow at the [[South Pole]], arriving there in December,{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=2}} in ice cores of [[East Antarctica]],{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=10}} and in various sites of the northern [[Antarctic Peninsula]], where it arrived in August.{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=9}} [[Aircraft]] noted the ash cloud as far as [[Melbourne]] in Australia.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 16:07}} Particles from Hudson have been found in ice at [[Mount Everest]], [[Himalaya]].{{sfn|Malek|Eom|Hwang|Hur|2019|p=207}}
The 1991 eruption of Hudson took place in the same year as the [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo]].{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=1}} The Pinatubo [[aerosol]]s had already spread worldwide when Hudson erupted. Unlike the Pinatubo eruption, Hudson mostly produced volcanic ash which fell out more quickly.{{sfn|Evangelista|Castagna|Correia|Potocki|2022|p=2}} However, the Hudson cloud led to substantial [[ozone]] loss over Antarctica and had comparable effects in the southern hemisphere to the Pinatubo eruption.{{sfn|Case|Colarco|Toon|Aquila|2017}}
=== Other historical activity ===
There are reports of historical eruptions in the late 19th century, but only an 1891 eruption can be attributed to Hudson.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} There are single reports of eruptions in 1930{{sfn|Torrent|Herrera|Bustamante|2016|p=73}} and 1965.{{sfn|Lange|Cembrano|Rietbrock|Haberland|2008|p=16}} A crater in the centre-western sector of the caldera may have been active around 1973.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} A lahar in that year killed a number of animals and two shepherds; it may either be non-volcanic{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report CSLP 43-73}} or due to a [[subglacial eruption]]. Other lahars may have occurred in 1972 and 1979.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}}
On the morning of 12 August 1971, tremors heralded the onset of a new eruption.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}} It lasted for three days and reached a volcanic explosivity index of 3 to 4,{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} smaller than the 1991 eruption.{{sfn|Gutiérrez|Gioncada|González Ferran|Lahsen|2005|p=208}} An eruption column rose {{convert|5| to |12|km|0}} above the volcano and deposited tephra to the east into the South Atlantic Ocean.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} Ashfall buried pastures{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report CSLP 80-71}} and left deposits in lakes of the Chonos Archipelago.{{sfn|Haberle|Lumley|1998|p=244}} A [[lahar]] descended the Huemules River, killing at least five people and damaging houses and farms.{{sfn|Naranjo S.|Moreno R.|Banks|1993|p=10}} The lahar dragged blocks of ice along,{{sfn|Iribarren Anacona|Mackintosh|Norton|2015|p=15}} swept the valley clear of trees and produced a [[pumice raft]] in the sea off the mouth of the Huemules River.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=303}} No pyroclastic flows formed during this eruption,{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}} while subglacial lava flows may{{sfn|Barr|Lynch|Mullan|De Siena|2018|p=193}} or may not have formed.{{sfn|Best|1992|p=301}}
During the 1990s, episodes of [[volcanic gas]] release killed animals in the Huemules valley. They do not appear to be linked to (visible) volcanic activity.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=11}}
The last eruption was in October 2011,{{sfn|Weller|Miranda|Moreno|Villa-Martínez|2014|p=4}} and was preceded by increasing [[hydrothermal]]{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=16}} and [[seismic]] activity, the latter lasting for a few days.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12}} The eruption began on October 26 and ended on November 1.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruption history}} Three vents formed in the southern sector of the caldera. Ash columns rose to almost {{convert|1|km|1}} altitude.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12}} Lahars ran along several valleys surrounding the volcano, probably caused by ice interacting with the hydrothermal system of the volcano.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=43}} Chilean authorities evacuated about 140 people from the region due to the threat from ash fall and lahars.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12}}
Between 1991 and 2008, uplift took place at the volcano. Initially at a pace of {{convert|5|cm/year|in/year|sigfig=1}}, after 2004 it decreased to a rate of {{convert|2|cm/year|in/year|sigfig=1}}.{{sfn|Rivera|Bown|2013|p=348}} The uplift was probably caused by the entry of new magma in Hudson's plumbing system.{{sfn|Delgado|Pritchard|Lohman|Naranjo|2014|p=2}} Presently, shallow [[seismicity]] takes place under Hudson and south of it, between {{convert|0| to |10|km|0}} underground, and is probably related to volcanic activity.{{sfn|Agurto-Detzel|Rietbrock|Bataille|Miller|2014|p=8}}
== Hazards ==
The 1991 eruption has drawn attention to hazards stemming from Hudson and other Patagonian volcanoes.{{sfn|Mateo|2008|p=6}} About 84,000 people{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=41}} live within {{convert|50|km}} of Hudson.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=40}} Despite the low population density in the regions of Argentina downwind of Hudson, ash fall could cause serious impacts on farming and animal husbandry.{{sfn|Perucca|Moreiras|2009|p=288}}
Most eruptions led to tephra fallout around the volcano, with more intense eruptions producing pyroclastic flows outside of the caldera. [[Mudflow]]s caused by melting of ice or erosion of tephra and pyroclastic deposits have occurred in the Huemules and Ibáñez valleys.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=11}}
After the 1991 eruption of Hudson, the Argentine [[SEGEMAR]] initiated a monitoring program for Argentine volcanoes.{{sfn|Garcia|Badi|2021|p=23}} The Chilean [[SERNAGEOMIN]] published a volcano hazard map in 2014, which shows areas threatened by lahars, lava flows, pyroclastic fall, pyroclastic flows, tephra fallout and volcanic bombs.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=44}} According to the map, the highest hazards exist in the Huemules and Sorpresas valleys, in the caldera and its immediate surroundings. Other high-risk areas are the northern, southwestern and southeastern slopes of the volcano. Medium hazards occur in the rest of the valleys around Mount Hudson, with low hazard areas in the more distant valleys east of the volcano.{{sfn|Amigo|Bertin|2014|p=27}} {{as of|2023}}, the municipal planning of the municipalities on the Chilean side close to the volcano largely ignores volcanic hazards.{{sfn|Geoffroy|Ciocca|2023|p=49}}
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
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* {{cite journal |last1=Orihashi |first1=Yuji |last2=Naranjo |first2=José A. |last3=Motoki |first3=Akihisa |last4=Sumino |first4=Hirochika |last5=Hirata |first5=Daiji |last6=Anma |first6=Ryo |last7=Nagao |first7=Keisuke |title=Quaternary volcanic activity of Hudson and Lautaro volcanoes, Chilean Patagonia: New constraints from K-Ar ages |journal=Revista Geológica de Chile |date=December 2004 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=207–224 |doi=10.4067/S0716-02082004000200002 |url=https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0716-02082004000200002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt |issn=0716-0208}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Orquera |first1=Luis Abel |title=Mid-Holocene littoral adaptation at the southern end of South America |journal=Quaternary International |date=January 2005 |volume=132 |issue=1 |pages=107–115 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2004.07.019 |bibcode=2005QuInt.132..107O |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618204001594 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Panaretos |first1=Panayiotis |last2=Albert |first2=Paul G. |last3=Thomas |first3=Zoë A. |last4=Turney |first4=Chris S.M. |last5=Stern |first5=Charles R. |last6=Jones |first6=Gwydion |last7=Williams |first7=Alan N. |last8=Smith |first8=Victoria C. |last9=Hogg |first9=Alan G. |last10=Manning |first10=Christina J. |title=Distal ash fall from the mid-Holocene eruption of Mount Hudson (H2) discovered in the Falkland Islands: New possibilities for Southern Hemisphere archive synchronisation |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=August 2021 |volume=266 |pages=107074 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107074 |bibcode=2021QSRv..26607074P |s2cid=237258918 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027737912100281X |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Parra |first1=Juan A. |last2=Figueroa |first2=Dante M. |title=Aplicación de un modelo de advección-difusión para dispersión de ceniza volcánica:\ erupción volcán Hudson (1991), Chile |journal=Revista Mexicana de Física |date=1 January 1999 |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=466–471 |url=https://rmf.smf.mx/ojs/index.php/rmf/article/view/2894 |language=en |issn=2683-2224}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Perucca |first1=Laura P. |last2=Moreiras |first2=Stella M. |title=Seismic and Volcanic Hazards in Argentina |journal=Developments in Earth Surface Processes |date=2009 |volume=13 |pages=267–300 |doi=10.1016/S0928-2025(08)10014-1 |isbn=9780444531179}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Prieto |first1=Alfredo |last2=Stern |first2=Charles R. |last3=Estévez |first3=Jordi E. |title=The peopling of the Fuego-Patagonian fjords by littoral hunter–gatherers after the mid-Holocene H1 eruption of Hudson Volcano |journal=Quaternary International |date=December 2013 |volume=317 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2013.06.024 |bibcode=2013QuInt.317....3P |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618213003650 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rivera |first1=Andrés |last2=Bown |first2=Francisca |title=Recent glacier variations on active ice capped volcanoes in the Southern Volcanic Zone (37°–46°S), Chilean Andes |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=August 2013 |volume=45 |pages=345–356 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2013.02.004 |bibcode=2013JSAES..45..345R |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0895981113000382 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |via=[[Google Books]] |title=La cordillera de los Andes entre las latitude 46:̊ 50 ̊S. Luis Riso Patrón S.: ex-injeniero jefe de la segunda subcomisión chilena de limites con la República arjentina |language=es |first=Luis Risopatrón |last=Sánchez |publisher=Imprenta Cervantes |year=1905}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Simi |first1=E. |last2=Moreno |first2=P. I. |last3=Villa-Martínez |first3=R. |last4=Vilanova |first4=I. |last5=de Pol-Holz |first5=R. |title=Climate change and resilience of deciduous Nothofagus forests in central–east Chilean Patagonia over the last 3200 years |journal=Journal of Quaternary Science |date=August 2017 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=845–856 |doi=10.1002/jqs.2948 |bibcode=2017JQS....32..845S |s2cid=55547438 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jqs.2948 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Rebecca E. |last2=Smith |first2=Victoria C. |last3=Fontijn |first3=Karen |last4=Gebhardt |first4=A. Catalina |last5=Wastegård |first5=Stefan |last6=Zolitschka |first6=Bernd |last7=Ohlendorf |first7=Christian |last8=Stern |first8=Charles |last9=Mayr |first9=Christoph |title=Refining the Late Quaternary tephrochronology for southern South America using the Laguna Potrok Aike sedimentary record |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=August 2019 |volume=218 |pages=137–156 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.001 |bibcode=2019QSRv..218..137S |s2cid=197679210 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379119302008 |language=en}}
* {{cite conference |via=[[ResearchGate]] |last1=Stern |first1=Charles R. |first2=Derek |last2=Weller |title=A Revised age of 7430±250 14C yrs BP for the very large mid-Holocene explosive H1 eruption of the Hudson volcano, southern Chile |conference=13th Chilean Geologic Congress |location=[[Antofagasta, Chile]] |year=2012}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=Charles R. |title=Holocene tephrochronology record of large explosive eruptions in the southernmost Patagonian Andes |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |date=February 2008 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=435–454 |doi=10.1007/s00445-007-0148-z |bibcode=2008BVol...70..435S |s2cid=140710192 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-007-0148-z |language=en}}
* {{cite conference |url=https://catalogobiblioteca.sernageomin.cl/Archivos/14905_v1_pp_424_427.pdf |language=en |conference=XIV Chilean Geological Congress |location=[[La Serena, Chile|La Serena]] |date=October 2015 |title=Along Arc Petrochemical Variations in the Southernmost Andean SVZ (43.5-46°S): Implications for Magma Genesis |first1=Charles R |last1=Stern |first2=José Antonio |last2=Naranjo}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=Charles R. |title=Obsidian sources and distribution in Patagonia, southernmost South America |journal=Quaternary International |date=February 2018 |volume=468 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2017.07.030 |bibcode=2018QuInt.468..190S}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Torrent |first1=Juan Carlos Rodríguez |last2=Herrera |first2=Sonia Reyes |last3=Bustamante |first3=Fernando Mandujano |title=El proyecto nueva Chaitén: La asincronía entre Estado, academia y comunidad |journal=AUS [Arquitectura / Urbanismo / Sustentabilidad] |date=2016 |issue=19 |pages=73–79 |doi=10.4206/aus.2016.n19-12 |url=http://revistas.uach.cl/index.php/AUS/article/view/87 |language=es |issn=0718-7262}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Turbon |first1=D. |last2=Arenas |first2=C. |last3=Cuadras |first3=C. M. |title=Fueguian crania and the circum-Pacific rim variation |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=June 2017 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=295–316 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23207 |pmid=28374500 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.23207 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vanneste |first1=Kris |last2=Wils |first2=Katleen |last3=Van Daele |first3=Maarten |title=Probabilistic Evaluation of Fault Sources Based on Paleoseismic Evidence From Mass-Transport Deposits: The Example of Aysén Fjord, Chile |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=November 2018 |volume=123 |issue=11 |pages=9842–9865 |doi=10.1029/2018jb016289 |bibcode=2018JGRB..123.9842V |s2cid=134520351 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Watt |first1=Sebastian F.L. |last2=Pyle |first2=David M. |last3=Mather |first3=Tamsin A. |title=The volcanic response to deglaciation: Evidence from glaciated arcs and a reassessment of global eruption records |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |date=July 2013 |volume=122 |pages=77–102 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.03.007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=D. |last2=Miranda |first2=C. G. |last3=Moreno |first3=P. I. |last4=Villa-Martínez |first4=R. |last5=Stern |first5=C. R. |title=The large late-glacial Ho eruption of the Hudson volcano, southern Chile |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |date=June 2014 |volume=76 |issue=6 |doi=10.1007/s00445-014-0831-9 |bibcode=2014BVol...76..831W |s2cid=53612778 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-014-0831-9 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=D. J. |last2=Miranda |first2=C. G. |last3=Moreno |first3=P. I. |last4=Villa-Martínez |first4=R. |last5=Stern |first5=C. R. |title=Tephrochronology of the southernmost Andean Southern Volcanic Zone, Chile |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |date=December 2015 |volume=77 |issue=12 |page=107 |doi=10.1007/s00445-015-0991-2 |bibcode=2015BVol...77..107W |s2cid=264200335 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-015-0991-2 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vandekerkhove |first1=Elke |last2=Bertrand |first2=Sébastien |last3=Reid |first3=Brian |last4=Bartels |first4=Astrid |last5=Charlier |first5=Bernard |title=Sources of dissolved silica to the fjords of northern Patagonia (44–48°S): the importance of volcanic ash soil distribution and weathering |journal=Earth Surface Processes and Landforms |date=30 March 2016 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=499–512 |doi=10.1002/esp.3840 |bibcode=2016ESPL...41..499V |hdl=2268/198359 |s2cid=54943497 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/esp.3840 |language=en}}
{{refend}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |title=La erupcion del volcan Hudson (Andes Patagonicos) en agosto 1991 |first=Peter René |last=Bitschene |publisher=Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco |language=en |year=1995 |ref=none |oclc=883455940}}
{{Andean volcanoes}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hudson, Mount}}
[[Category:20th-century volcanic events]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Mountains of Aysén Region]]
[[Category:South Volcanic Zone]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Chile]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]
[[Category:VEI-6 volcanoes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Aysén Region]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mountain in Chile</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox vcard" style="width:24.5em; line-height:1.5em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color: #E7DCC3;">Mount Hudson</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader nickname">Cerro Hudson</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding: 0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.2em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerro_hudson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A steaming depression, surrounded by dark ash deposits, in the middle of a circular ice field" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Cerro_hudson.jpg/272px-Cerro_hudson.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Cerro_hudson.jpg/408px-Cerro_hudson.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Cerro_hudson.jpg/544px-Cerro_hudson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="423" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding: 0.2em 0em;">Aerial photo from 1991</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #E7DCC3;">Highest point</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Summit" title="Summit">Elevation</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1,905 m (6,250 ft)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion load-gadget" data-gadget="WikiMiniAtlas"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Mount_Hudson&params=45.92_S_72.95_W_type:mountain_region:CL-AI"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">45°55′S</span> <span class="longitude">72°57′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">45.92°S 72.95°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-45.92; -72.95</span></span></span></a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #E7DCC3;">Naming</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Named after <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Hudson" title="Francisco Hudson">Francisco Hudson</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #E7DCC3;">Geography</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.5em 0.2em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219143323">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#000;color:#fff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#000;color:#fff}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:122px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:122px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:122px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hudson lies in southernmost Chile"><img alt="Hudson lies in southernmost Chile" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg/122px-Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg/183px-Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg/244px-Relief_Map_of_Chile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:72.941%;left:42.75%"><div class="id" style="left:-8px;top:-8px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Mount Hudson"><img alt="Hudson lies in southernmost Chile" src="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg/16px-Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg/24px-Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg.png 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg/32px-Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="240" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:9px"><div>Mount Hudson</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Chile</div></div></div></div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range"><span class="nowrap">Parent range</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #E7DCC3;">Geology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_types" title="List of mountain types">Mountain type</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">Caldera</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Volcanic <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">arc</a>/<a href="/wiki/Volcanic_belt" title="Volcanic belt">belt</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt#Southern_Volcanic_Zone" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Southern Volcanic Zone</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">Last eruption</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2011</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Mount Hudson</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es"><b>Volcán Hudson</b></i>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es"><b>Cerro Hudson</b></i>, <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><b>Monte Hudson</b></i></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a> in the rugged mountains of southern <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>. Lying in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Volcanic Zone">Southern Volcanic Zone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, it was formed by the <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Nazca_Plate" title="Nazca Plate">Nazca Plate</a> under the continental <a href="/wiki/South_American_Plate" title="South American Plate">South American Plate</a>. The Nazca Plate ends there at the <a href="/wiki/Chile_Triple_Junction" title="Chile Triple Junction">Chile Triple Junction</a>; south of Hudson is a smaller volcano, followed by a long gap without active volcanoes that separates the Southern Volcanic Zone from the <a href="/wiki/Austral_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Austral Volcanic Zone">Austral Volcanic Zone</a>. Hudson has the form of a 10-kilometre-wide (6-mile) volcanic <a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">caldera</a> filled with ice. The Huemules <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacier</a> emerges from the northwestern side of the caldera. The volcano has erupted rocks ranging from <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a>, but large parts of the caldera are formed by non-volcanic rocks.
</p><p>The volcano erupted numerous times in the late <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a></sup>, forming widespread <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a> deposits both in the proximity of Hudson and in the wider region, and is the most active volcano in the region. The last eruption was in 2011.
</p><p>Four large eruptions took place in 17,300–17,440 <a href="/wiki/Before_present" class="mw-redirect" title="Before present">BP</a> ("H0 eruption"), 7,750 BP ("H1 eruption"), 4,200 BP ("H2 eruption") and in 1991 <a href="/wiki/AD" class="mw-redirect" title="AD">AD</a> ("H3 eruption"); the second is among the most intense volcanic eruptions in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>. A smaller eruption occurred in 1971. The 7,750 BP and 1991 eruptions had a substantial impact on the human population of Patagonia and (for the 7,750 BP eruption) <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a>: The 7,750 BP eruption devastated the local ecosystem and may have caused substantial shifts in human settlement and lifestyle. During the 1991 eruption, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> covered a large area in Chile and neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, causing high mortality in farm animals, aggravating an existing economic crisis, and depositing ash as far as <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Geography_and_geomorphology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Geography and geomorphology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Geology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Geology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Composition_and_magma_plumbing_system"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Composition and magma plumbing system</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Climate_and_vegetation"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Climate and vegetation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Eruption_history"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Eruption history</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Holocene"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Holocene</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Significant_eruptions_and_recent_activity"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Significant eruptions and recent activity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#H0_eruption:_17,300–17,440_BP"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">H0 eruption: 17,300–17,440 BP</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#H1_eruption:_7,750_BP"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">H1 eruption: 7,750 BP</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Impact_on_Tierra_del_Fuego"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Impact on Tierra del Fuego</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#H2_eruption:_4,200_BP"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">H2 eruption: 4,200 BP</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#H3_eruption:_1991_AD"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">H3 eruption: 1991 AD</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Intercontinental_spread_of_ash"><span class="tocnumber">5.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Intercontinental spread of ash</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Other_historical_activity"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Other historical activity</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Hazards"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Hazards</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Geography_and_geomorphology">Geography and geomorphology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography and geomorphology" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Geography and geomorphology"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Mount Hudson lies in the Andes of southern Chile,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5">[3]</a></sup> northwest of <a href="/wiki/Lago_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Lago Buenos Aires">Lago Buenos Aires</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142-6">[4]</a></sup> The name "Hudson" refers to <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Hudson" title="Francisco Hudson">Francisco Hudson</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Navy" title="Chilean Navy">Chilean Navy</a> captain and <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrographer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESánchez190533_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESánchez190533-7">[5]</a></sup> Another name of the volcano is Cerro de los Ventisqueros.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19741_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19741-8">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a></sup> Politically, Mount Hudson is in the <a href="/wiki/Aysen_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Aysen Province">Aysen Province</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19741_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19741-8">[6]</a></sup> of Chile's <a href="/wiki/Aysen_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Aysen Region">Aysen Region</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146-11">[8]</a></sup> Most of the volcano is in the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_municipalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean municipalities">Chilean municipality</a> of Aysen; the eastern and southern parts are in the municipalities Coihaique and Rio Ibáñez, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202340_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202340-12">[9]</a></sup> Owing to its remoteness and the dense vegetation at its foot, the volcano is poorly studied;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> it was recognized as a volcano only<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[d]</a></sup> in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992301-18">[14]</a></sup> The closest cities are <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Aysen" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Aysen">Puerto Aysen</a> 58 kilometres (36 mi) north-northeast and <a href="/wiki/Coihaique" class="mw-redirect" title="Coihaique">Coihaique</a> 75 kilometres (47 mi) northeast; the <a href="/wiki/Carretera_Austral" title="Carretera Austral">Carretera Austral</a> <a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highway</a> passes 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5">[3]</a></sup> The volcano can be accessed either from the sea along the Huemules River valley or by land via the valley of the Blanco River from Lago Elizalde-Lago Claro.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalida-Ponce197479_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalida-Ponce197479-19">[15]</a></sup> Small populations, mostly farmers, live in the surrounding valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147-20">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Andean Volcanic Belt</a> includes four volcanic zones separated by gaps without recent volcanoes. From north to south they are the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Volcanic Zone">Northern Volcanic Zone</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Volcanic Zone">Central Volcanic Zone</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Volcanic Zone">Southern Volcanic Zone</a> (SVZ) and the <a href="/wiki/Austral_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Austral Volcanic Zone">Austral Volcanic Zone</a> (AVZ).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21">[17]</a></sup> Hudson is the second-southernmost volcano of the SVZ, after <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Murta_(volcano)" title="Río Murta (volcano)">Rio Murta</a>; erroneously,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209,_216_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209,_216-22">[18]</a></sup> it is often referred to as the southernmost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292-23">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> Farther south there is the 350-kilometre-long (220 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24">[20]</a></sup> Patagonian Volcanic Gap<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420-25">[21]</a></sup> in the Andean Volcanic Belt,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24">[20]</a></sup> which separates Hudson from the Austral Volcanic Zone and its first volcano, <a href="/wiki/Lautaro_(volcano)" title="Lautaro (volcano)">Lautaro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147-20">[16]</a></sup> The next volcanoes to the north are <a href="/wiki/Mate_Grande" title="Mate Grande">Mate Grande</a> 35 kilometres (22 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_PascaleFroudePennaHermanns20219_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_PascaleFroudePennaHermanns20219-26">[22]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cerro_Mac%C3%A1" title="Cerro Macá">Macá</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">Cay</a> 95 kilometres (59 mi) from Hudson,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup> then <a href="/wiki/Mentolat" title="Mentolat">Mentolat</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Puyuhuapi_(volcanic_group)" title="Puyuhuapi (volcanic group)">Puyuhuapi volcanic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142-6">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The volcano is a 10-kilometre-wide (6 mi) ice-filled <a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">caldera</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[e]</a></sup> that rises 1,000 to 1,200 metres (3,300 to 3,900 ft) above the surrounding terrain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup> Only the western and southern margins are well-defined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParraFigueroa1999468_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParraFigueroa1999468-30">[25]</a></sup> The highest point reaches 1,905 metres (6,250 ft) elevation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5">[3]</a></sup> The edifice consists partly of volcanic rocks and partly of uplifted <a href="/wiki/Basement_(geology)" title="Basement (geology)">basement</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215-31">[26]</a></sup> and has an eroded appearance,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup> with steep valleys cutting as much as 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) into the outer reaches of the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5">[3]</a></sup> The total volume of the volcano is about 147 cubic kilometres (35 cu mi), larger than other SVZ volcanoes,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20155_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20155-32">[27]</a></sup> and it covers an area of about 300 square kilometres (120 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147-20">[16]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cinder_cone" title="Cinder cone">Cinder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spatter_cone" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatter cone">spatter cones</a> reach heights of 200 to 300 metres (660 to 980 ft) and are sources of <a href="/wiki/Lava_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava flow">lava flows</a> outside of the caldera, especially in the Sorpresa Sur valley.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213-33">[28]</a></sup> There are two cones northeast of the caldera and one in the far southwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19742_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19742-34">[29]</a></sup> The landscape of the Andes around Hudson is formed by numerous mountains (including the Cerros Hudson 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south of the volcano) with deep, <a href="/wiki/Glacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial">glacially</a> carved valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5">[3]</a></sup> Thick <a href="/wiki/Andosol" title="Andosol">volcanic soils</a> occur in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVandekerkhoveBertrandReidBartels2016504_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVandekerkhoveBertrandReidBartels2016504-35">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>The caldera is filled with about 2.5 cubic kilometres (0.6 cu mi) of 40-metre (130 ft) thick <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07-36">[31]</a></sup> forming an ice surface at about 1,505 to 1,520 metres (4,940 to 4,990 ft) elevation. Ice flows out of the northwestern margin of the caldera and forms the Ventisquero de los Huemules <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup> The Huemules Glacier is the largest glacier of Mount Hudson, being 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) long,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup> and the headwater of the Huemules River. The glacier is covered by <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a> and its surface is at too low an altitude for the tephra to be buried under snow;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005212_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005212-37">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013350_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013350-38">[33]</a></sup> thus from the air the glacier looks like a lava flow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213-33">[28]</a></sup> A small <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake" title="Volcanic crater lake">crater lake</a> is at its beginning and occupies a crater of the 1991 eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213-33">[28]</a></sup> Most of the ice in the caldera was destroyed by the 1971 eruption, but by 1979 it had built up again. During the 1991 eruption, cones surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Crevasse" title="Crevasse">crevasses</a> and small lakes formed in the ice. The recovery of the ice after the 1991 eruption was slower, and by 2002 Huemules <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">was retreating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasiokasRiveraEspizuaVillalba2009245_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasiokasRiveraEspizuaVillalba2009245-39">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013350_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013350-38">[33]</a></sup> During eruptions, pyroclastic material and lava can melt the ice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018196_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018196-40">[35]</a></sup> Other glaciers emanating from the ice cap are the Desplayado, Bayo, Ibáñez, El Frio, Sorpresa Sur and Sorpresa Norte glaciers. They were up to 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long in 1974 but have retreated since then.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup> Together with the <a href="/wiki/Queulat_National_Park" title="Queulat National Park">Queulat Ice Cap</a>, the Hudson glaciers make up a large part of the regional glacier inventory,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooperThorndycraftDaviesPalmer2021663_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooperThorndycraftDaviesPalmer2021663-41">[36]</a></sup> and have left well-preserved <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooperThorndycraftDaviesPalmer2021674_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooperThorndycraftDaviesPalmer2021674-42">[37]</a></sup> The path of some of the glaciers may be influenced by local tectonic <a href="/wiki/Lineament" title="Lineament">lineaments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalida-Ponce197479_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalida-Ponce197479-19">[15]</a></sup> Numerous rivers originate on Hudson; clockwise from north to south they include the Rio Desplayado to the north, the Rio Bayo to the east, the <a href="/wiki/Ib%C3%A1%C3%B1ez_River" title="Ibáñez River">Rio Ibáñez</a>, the Rio Sorpresa Sur, Rio Sorpresa Norte all to the southeast, and the Huemules River to the northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5">[3]</a></sup> Volcanic activity might be responsible for fluctuations in the discharge of the Huemules River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19741_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19741-8">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Geology">Geology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geology" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Geology"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subduction-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="During subduction, a tectonic plate sinks underneath another one and produces melts that form volcanoes" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/220px-Subduction-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/330px-Subduction-en.svg.png 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/440px-Subduction-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of a subduction zone</figcaption></figure>
<p>Off the western coast of South America, the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_Plate" title="Nazca Plate">Nazca Plate</a> <a href="/wiki/Subduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduct">subducts</a> beneath the <a href="/wiki/South_America_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="South America Plate">South America Plate</a> at a rate - at Hudson's latitude - of about 9 centimetres per year (3.5 in/year).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21">[17]</a></sup> This subduction is responsible for volcanism in the SVZ<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> and the rest of the Andean Volcanic Belt<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21">[17]</a></sup> except for the AVZ, where the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Plate" title="Antarctic Plate">Antarctic Plate</a> subducts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>West of Hudson and the <a href="/wiki/Taitao_Peninsula" title="Taitao Peninsula">Taitao Peninsula</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21">[17]</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Chile_Ridge" title="Chile Ridge">Chile Ridge</a> enters the <a href="/wiki/Peru-Chile_Trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Peru-Chile Trench">Peru-Chile Trench</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/Chile_Triple_Junction" title="Chile Triple Junction">Chile Triple Junction</a>. The subduction of the ridge has produced a <a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">slab window</a> in the downgoing <a href="/wiki/Slab_(geology)" title="Slab (geology)">slab</a>, causing volcanism to cease in the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> and a gap to open up between the SVZ and the AVZ.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> The collision began 14 million years ago; since then, the triple junction<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21">[17]</a></sup> and the volcanic gap are migrating north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> Several <a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">fracture zones</a> cut through the downgoing plate,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21">[17]</a></sup> one of which (either the Taitao or the Darwin fracture zone) may project under Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternNaranjo2015426_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternNaranjo2015426-43">[38]</a></sup> South of the volcano, the Tres Montes Fracture Zone forms the northern boundary of the slab window.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005229_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005229-44">[39]</a></sup> The subducted plate is still young and hot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilianIppachLopez-Escobar1993386_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilianIppachLopez-Escobar1993386-45">[40]</a></sup> The position of Hudson just east of the triple junction may be responsible for the unusually high activity of the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201522_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201522-46">[41]</a></sup> Older volcanism in the region includes <a href="/wiki/Back-arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Back-arc">back-arc</a> volcanoes in Patagonia and <a href="/wiki/Adakitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adakitic">adakitic</a> rocks in the Taitao Peninsula that were emplaced during the last 4 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005210_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005210-47">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hudson rises from the <a href="/wiki/North_Patagonian_Batholith" title="North Patagonian Batholith">Patagonian Batholith</a>, a 1,000-kilometre (600 mi) long <a href="/wiki/Formation_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation (geology)">formation</a> made up of <a href="/wiki/Intrusive_rock" title="Intrusive rock">intrusive rocks</a> (<a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">diorite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granodiorite" title="Granodiorite">granodiorite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonalite" title="Tonalite">tonalite</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19939-27">[23]</a></sup>) that was emplaced during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[f]</a></sup>-<a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[g]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005212_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005212-37">[32]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> under the volcano is about 30 kilometres (19 mi) thick.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010238_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010238-50">[43]</a></sup> The volcanism in the SVZ is heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Liqui%C3%B1e-Ofqui_Fault_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone">Liquine-Ofqui Fault Zone</a> (LOFZ) which runs parallel to the volcanic belt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005211_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005211-51">[44]</a></sup> In the Hudson area, the LOFZ is formed by two branches connected through perpendicular <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005229_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005229-44">[39]</a></sup> and lies 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup> The LOFZ moves at a rate of about 1 to 2 centimetres per year (0.4 to 0.8 in/year) in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_PascaleFroudePennaHermanns20211_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_PascaleFroudePennaHermanns20211-52">[45]</a></sup> Recently active faults around the volcano can be recognized in the vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalida-Ponce197480_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalida-Ponce197480-53">[46]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Composition_and_magma_plumbing_system">Composition and magma plumbing system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Composition and magma plumbing system" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Composition and magma plumbing system"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Hudson has erupted a wide range of volcanic rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010255_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010255-54">[47]</a></sup> The cones outside the caldera have produced <a href="/wiki/Basaltic_andesite" title="Basaltic andesite">basaltic andesite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215-31">[26]</a></sup> The Hudson rocks are a <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Calc-alkaline">calc-alkaline</a> rock suite straddling the alkaline-subalkaline line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternNaranjo2015424_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternNaranjo2015424-55">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005216_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005216-56">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201412_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201412-57">[50]</a></sup> Rocks contain only a few <a href="/wiki/Phenocryst" title="Phenocryst">phenocrysts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215-31">[26]</a></sup> including <a href="/wiki/Andesine" title="Andesine">andesine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinopyroxene" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinopyroxene">clinopyroxene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">ilmenite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligoclase" title="Oligoclase">oligoclase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orthopyroxene" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthopyroxene">orthopyroxene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">plagioclase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titanomagnetite" title="Titanomagnetite">titanomagnetite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215–216_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215–216-58">[51]</a></sup> The composition of Hudson rocks diverges from that of other SVZ volcanoes,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005222_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005222-59">[52]</a></sup> with higher concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide" title="Sodium oxide">sodium oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium_oxide" title="Titanium oxide">titanium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_element" title="Incompatible element">incompatible elements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>The cone lavas include <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge_basalt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-ocean ridge basalt">mid-ocean ridge basalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_island_basalt" title="Ocean island basalt">ocean island basalt</a> components as well as <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>- or sediment-derived components,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005225–226_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005225–226-60">[53]</a></sup> while the caldera magmas formed through <a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">fractional crystallization</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[h]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416-62">[54]</a></sup> possibly along with the assimilation of crustal material.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005227_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005227-63">[55]</a></sup> The three major Holocene eruptions produced uniform magmas with temperatures of 943 to 972 °C (1,729 to 1,782 °F), a few percent water by weight and a <a href="/wiki/Trachyandesitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Trachyandesitic">trachyandesitic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Trachydacite" class="mw-redirect" title="Trachydacite">trachydacitic</a> composition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010261_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010261-64">[56]</a></sup> The H2 eruption led to a change of magma chemistry to more <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> compositions, followed by a reversal during the last 1,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELachowyczFontijnSmithPyle2016_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELachowyczFontijnSmithPyle2016-65">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>Magma genesis processes can be complex in slab window areas, as melts derived from the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> that ascended through the window can take part.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> Magmas ascending into Hudson halt about 6 to 24 kilometres (4 to 15 mi) underground and undergo a first phase of differentiation. Later the magma ascends into shallower reservoirs<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010262_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010262-66">[58]</a></sup> and is then stored at a few kilometres depth before the large Holocene eruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010261_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010261-64">[56]</a></sup> During historical eruptions, the vents opened up in the southwestern sector of the caldera.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo201414_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo201414-67">[59]</a></sup> Some magmas can bypass the magma chamber and directly ascend to the surface through <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a>, forming the volcanic cones surrounding Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005228_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005228-68">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Climate_and_vegetation">Climate and vegetation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Climate and vegetation" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Climate and vegetation"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The climate at Hudson is <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">oceanic</a>, with mean annual temperatures of 8 to 10 °C (46 to 50 °F). Precipitation at the coast reaches 3,000 millimetres (10 ft) per year, increasing to 10,000 millimetres (30 ft) in the Andes and declining to 800 millimetres (31 in) in the eastern valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarveyCarrascoSolísBortolaso2023367_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarveyCarrascoSolísBortolaso2023367-69">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241-70">[62]</a></sup> Precipitation is brought by westerly winds and enhanced on the western slopes of the Andes by <a href="/wiki/Orographic_precipitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Orographic precipitation">orographic precipitation</a>, while the eastern slopes are within the <a href="/wiki/Rainshadow" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainshadow">rainshadow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimiMorenoVilla-MartínezVilanova2017846_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimiMorenoVilla-MartínezVilanova2017846-71">[63]</a></sup> Winds usually blow from the north or northwest and are strong; easterly winds are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarveyCarrascoSolísBortolaso2023367_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarveyCarrascoSolísBortolaso2023367-69">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241-70">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>The region is covered by <a href="/wiki/Temperate_rainforest" title="Temperate rainforest">temperate rainforests</a> formed by <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadleaf_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadleaf tree">broadleaf trees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beeches</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Nothofagus_pumilio" title="Nothofagus pumilio">Nothofagus pumilio</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarveyCarrascoSolísBortolaso2023367_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarveyCarrascoSolísBortolaso2023367-69">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241-70">[62]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Magellanic_moorland" title="Magellanic moorland">Magellanic moorlands</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">cushion plants</a> occur in the coastal areas. To the east there is a transition to the Patagonian <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a> with grasses, herbs and scrubs. Since the 19th century, the vegetation has been altered by human intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimiMorenoVilla-MartínezVilanova2017847_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimiMorenoVilla-MartínezVilanova2017847-72">[64]</a></sup> South of Hudson is the <a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Patagonian_Ice_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North Patagonian Ice Field (page does not exist)">North Patagonian Ice Field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821383_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821383-73">[65]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Eruption_history">Eruption history</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Eruption history" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Eruption history"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Hudson has been active for more than one million years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup> The northeastern sector of the volcano is older than the southeastern, which has yielded ages of 120,000–100,000 years,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2-74">[66]</a></sup> but the incomplete <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> of the edifice, which is largely covered with ice, precludes establishing a proper history of its growth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004DISCUSSION_AND_CONCLUSION:_EVOLUTION_OF_HUDSON_AND_LAUTARO_VOLCANOES_HUDSON_VOLCANO_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004DISCUSSION_AND_CONCLUSION:_EVOLUTION_OF_HUDSON_AND_LAUTARO_VOLCANOES_HUDSON_VOLCANO-75">[67]</a></sup> There are few <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephras</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>–<a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> transition time close to the volcano, but several have been found in <a href="/wiki/Marine_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine core">marine cores</a> west of Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019150_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019150-76">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial maximum">last glacial maximum</a>, Hudson was at the centre of a large <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheet</a> that covered the entire region<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011376_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011376-77">[69]</a></sup> with ice more than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) thick.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821384_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821384-78">[70]</a></sup> Tephra from its eruptions fell on the ice and was carried away by <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>, ending up in their moraines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011381_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011381-79">[71]</a></sup> The deglaciation that began 17,900 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142-6">[4]</a></sup> may have enhanced volcanic activity;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14-80">[72]</a></sup> the largest eruptions of Hudson, <a href="/wiki/Llaima" title="Llaima">Llaima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Villarrica" class="mw-disambig" title="Villarrica">Villarrica</a> took place at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821384_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821384-78">[70]</a></sup> The melting of the ice would have depressurized the buried magma systems, thus enhancing volcanic activity immediately after deglaciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821387_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather20821387-81">[73]</a></sup> After deglaciation was complete, the volumes of the intense Hudson eruptions decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14-80">[72]</a></sup> On the other hand, glaciation has removed most of the volcanic record of Patagonia pre-dating 14,500 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech201199_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech201199-82">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Holocene">Holocene</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Holocene" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Holocene"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Numerous <a href="/wiki/Explosive_eruption" title="Explosive eruption">explosive eruptions</a> took place during the Holocene,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> including three intense eruptions<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24">[20]</a></sup> among the largest of Holocene South America.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237-84">[76]</a></sup> There is a regularity, with intense explosive eruptions occurring about every 3,870 years,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> but their volumes have decreased over time and erupted rocks have become less mafic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416-62">[54]</a></sup> Smaller <a href="/wiki/Plinian_eruption" title="Plinian eruption">Plinian eruptions</a> occur about every 500 to 1000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_20:02_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_20:02-85">[77]</a></sup> Having erupted 55 times during the past 22,000 years,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201522_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201522-46">[41]</a></sup> Mount Hudson is the most active volcano in Patagonia<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998291_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998291-16">[13]</a></sup> and of the southernmost SVZ.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[i]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146-11">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Hudson caldera probably formed during the Holocene and grew incrementally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215-31">[26]</a></sup> Pre-caldera outcrops are rare and consist of <a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">breccias</a> formed by <a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">hyaloclastite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">lahars</a><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[j]</a></sup>, mafic <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lavas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">pyroclastic rocks</a>; they occur mostly on the northeastern and southern sides of the caldera.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005212_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005212-37">[32]</a></sup> Outside of the caldera, especially to the south, are widespread <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_fall" title="Pyroclastic fall">pyroclastic fall</a> deposits formed by banded <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>. Lahar deposits contain blocks of lava embedded within a fine-grained substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005213-33">[28]</a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">ignimbrite</a> probably associated with the formation of the caldera occurs all around Hudson. A Holocene lava flow extends along the Huemules valley and is 1 to 5 metres (3 to 16 ft) thick.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1-28">[24]</a></sup> The flow may be either 1,000 or 13,000<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[k]</a></sup> years old;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20149–10_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20149–10-90">[79]</a></sup> it was possibly the product of multiple eruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201410_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201410-91">[80]</a></sup> The volcanic cones outside of the caldera are weathered and covered by vegetation; they are of Holocene age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1-28">[24]</a></sup> Other geologic processes such as <a href="/wiki/Glacial_erosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial erosion">glacial erosion</a> have modified the appearance of the Hudson volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005231_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005231-92">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>Pyroclastic fall and tephra deposits<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> from Hudson and other volcanoes have been identified in marine cores in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, sediments in lakes and <a href="/wiki/Peat_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Peat bog">peat bogs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20151_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20151-93">[82]</a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> and potentially in <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurbatovZielinskiDunbarMayewski20067_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurbatovZielinskiDunbarMayewski20067-94">[83]</a></sup> Such tephra layers can be used to compare the timing of events across wide regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998241-70">[62]</a></sup> Tephra particles from Hudson have varying shapes and colours, but similar compositions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201511_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201511-95">[84]</a></sup> The closest tephra record to Hudson is the Laguna Miranda record 50 kilometres (30 mi) away, which shows on average one tephra layer every 225 years although it only records eruptions that distributed ash in the direction of the lake.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998254_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998254-96">[85]</a></sup> Several Hudson tephra layers from Juncal Alto 92 kilometres (57 mi) have been named T1 through T9,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292-23">[19]</a></sup> and another set from lakes in the <a href="/wiki/Chonos_Archipelago" title="Chonos Archipelago">Chonos Archipelago</a> and Taitao Peninsula is named HW1 through HW7.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998247_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998247-97">[86]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>Selected tephra layers from Hudson
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Date BP,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[l]</a></sup> sources<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998253_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998253-100">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292-23">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history-101">[89]</a></sup> unless given otherwise, margins of error omitted
</th>
<th>Taitao marine core tephra<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</th>
<th>Chonos Archipelago lacustrine tephra<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998253_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998253-100">[88]</a></sup>
</th>
<th>Juncal Alto<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292-23">[19]</a></sup> tephra layers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history-101">[89]</a></sup>
</th>
<th>Notes
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>19,860
</td>
<td>TL12
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>19,660
</td>
<td>TL11
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>19,600
</td>
<td>TL10
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>19,450
</td>
<td>TL9
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>18,900
</td>
<td>TL8
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>18,750
</td>
<td>TL7
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>17,350
</td>
<td>TL6
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>16,100/14,560/14,533<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>TL5<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>HW1<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.05 cubic kilometres (0.012 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>14,110/13,890/13,798<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>TL4<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>HW2<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.05 cubic kilometres (0.012 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>12,000/11,060/11,428<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>TL3<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>HW3<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.05 cubic kilometres (0.012 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>10,750
</td>
<td>TL2
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Tentatively assigned to Hudson<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>6,910/7,765<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T1
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>6,700/7,540
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>HW4
</td>
<td>T2
</td>
<td>H1 eruption<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998250_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998250-103">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history-101">[89]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>5,840/7,221<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T3
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>4,200/4,717<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T4
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3,840
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>HW5
</td>
<td>T5
</td>
<td>H2 eruption<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history_101-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history-101">[89]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2,740/2,558<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>HW6
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Also found southeast of the volcano<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20156_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20156-104">[92]</a></sup> and with an estimated volume of 0.05 cubic kilometres (0.012 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2,070/2,054<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T6
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.5 cubic kilometres (0.12 cu mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup> Also found in the <a href="/wiki/Talos_Dome" title="Talos Dome">Talos Dome</a>, Antarctica<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarcisiPetitDelmonteScarchilli201260_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarcisiPetitDelmonteScarchilli201260-105">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998297_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998297-106">[94]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1,920/1,560
</td>
<td>TL1<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>HW7<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104_99-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011104-99">[87]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.05 cubic kilometres (0.012 cu mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup> The attribution of a tephra layer in the <a href="/wiki/Talos_Dome" title="Talos Dome">Talos Dome</a> of Antarctica is questionable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDel_CarloDi_RobertoD'OrazioPetrelli2018166_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDel_CarloDi_RobertoD'OrazioPetrelli2018166-107">[95]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1,090/1,072<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T7
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>210/252<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T8
</td>
<td>Estimated volume of 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382_102-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWattPyleMather201382-102">[90]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>-21 (1971 AD)
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>T9
</td>
<td>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>An uncertain eruption may have occurred in 8,010 <a href="/wiki/Before_Common_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Before Common Era">BC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history_101-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history-101">[89]</a></sup> The 1,000 years ago date of the Huemules lava flow may correlate it to a mafic eruption 1,000 years ago, which also deposited tephra east and northeast from the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20148_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20148-108">[96]</a></sup> Tephra layers from 1035 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">AD</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoffmanGoldsteinWincklerKaplan20236_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoffmanGoldsteinWincklerKaplan20236-109">[97]</a></sup> and 9,216 BC in the <a href="/wiki/Siple_Dome" title="Siple Dome">Siple Dome</a> of Antarctica have been attributed to Hudson, but for the older eruption there is no evidence in South America of an appropriately sized event.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDel_CarloDi_RobertoD'OrazioPetrelli2018167_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDel_CarloDi_RobertoD'OrazioPetrelli2018167-110">[98]</a></sup> The Las Guanacas cave 100 kilometres (62 mi) southeast of Hudson preserves ash from Hudson more than 10,000 years old. On the Taitao Peninsula, tephra layers have been attributed to two eruptions in 11,910 and 9,960 years before present. These are isolated occurrences, indicating that they are not the products of very intense eruptions that would be expected to leave widespread deposits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998305_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998305-111">[99]</a></sup> Westward spread of Hudson tephras was more common in the earliest Holocene, when the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a> <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">westerlies</a> were located north of Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011109_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech2011109-112">[100]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Significant_eruptions_and_recent_activity">Significant eruptions and recent activity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Significant eruptions and recent activity" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Significant eruptions and recent activity"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span id="H0_eruption:_17.2C300.E2.80.9317.2C440_BP"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="H0_eruption:_17,300–17,440_BP">H0 eruption: 17,300–17,440 BP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: H0 eruption: 17,300–17,440 BP" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: H0 eruption: 17,300–17,440 BP"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The H0 eruption took place between 17,440–17,300 BP<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20149_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20149-113">[101]</a></sup> during late glacial times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24">[20]</a></sup> It is the largest known eruption of Hudson, yielding more than 20 cubic kilometres (4.8 cu mi)<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[m]</a></sup> of tephra, and may have initiated the growth of the caldera.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413-116">[103]</a></sup> The eruption occurred during deglaciation and was probably caused by the unloading of the magmatic system, when the overlying ice melted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoraTassara20191556_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoraTassara20191556-117">[104]</a></sup> The eruption occurred in several stages that yielded distinct rock compositions,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20146_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20146-118">[105]</a></sup> and like the 1991 AD eruption it included two distinct chemistries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201412_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201412-57">[50]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">trachyandesite</a> were the dominant components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416-62">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>The tephra was emplaced northeastward. Its thickness exceeded 50 centimetres (20 in) up to present-day Coihaique and the border with Argentina.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20148_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20148-119">[106]</a></sup> Tephra from the H0 eruption has been found in Lago Churasco, Lago Élida, Lago Mellizas, Lago Quijada, Lago Toro, Lago Shaman and Lago Unco northeast of Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20147,_8,_13_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20147,_8,_13-120">[107]</a></sup> After the eruption had ended, winds redeposited the tephras over distances of 400 kilometres (250 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019152_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019152-121">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="H1_eruption:_7.2C750_BP"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="H1_eruption:_7,750_BP">H1 eruption: 7,750 BP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: H1 eruption: 7,750 BP" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: H1 eruption: 7,750 BP"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The largest Holocene eruption of Hudson – and the largest in the southern Andes<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237-84">[76]</a></sup> – took place in 7,750<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[n]</a></sup> BP,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213-124">[110]</a></sup> and is known as the H1 eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> It produced about 18 cubic kilometres (4.3 cu mi) of trachydacitic or trachyandesitic rocks,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215_31-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215-31">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019142_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019142-125">[111]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416-62">[54]</a></sup> thus reaching a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_explosivity_index" title="Volcanic explosivity index">volcanic explosivity index</a> of 6.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998300_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998300-126">[112]</a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">mass wasting</a> deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Aysen_Fjord" class="mw-redirect" title="Aysen Fjord">Aysen Fjord</a> and the ignimbrite surrounding Hudson probably came from this eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVannesteWilsVan_Daele20189862_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVannesteWilsVan_Daele20189862-127">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004DISCUSSION_AND_CONCLUSION:_EVOLUTION_OF_HUDSON_AND_LAUTARO_VOLCANOES_HUDSON_VOLCANO_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004DISCUSSION_AND_CONCLUSION:_EVOLUTION_OF_HUDSON_AND_LAUTARO_VOLCANOES_HUDSON_VOLCANO-75">[67]</a></sup> The tephra deposits have three layers; an intermediary aggregate <a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">lapilli</a> formed through <a href="/wiki/Phreatomagmatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phreatomagmatic">phreatomagmatic</a> activity from a tall eruption column, and two overlying and underlying layers of pumiceous lapilli.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010239_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010239-128">[114]</a></sup> Water, presumably from glaciers and <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> on the volcano, drove the phreatomagmatic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998305–306_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998305–306-129">[115]</a></sup> Water interaction was more intense during H1 than during the H2 and H3 eruptions, which may imply that the caldera collapse occurred during this eruption, causing effective magma-ice interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998306_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998306-130">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ash from the H1 eruption fell south-southeast from the volcano, extending over all of southern Patagonia<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214-131">[117]</a></sup> and part of <a href="/wiki/Magallanes_Province" title="Magallanes Province">Magallanes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternWeller2012878_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternWeller2012878-122">[109]</a></sup> It has been recovered from lakes like <a href="/wiki/Lago_Cardiel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lago Cardiel">Lago Cardiel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laguna_Potrok_Aike" class="mw-redirect" title="Laguna Potrok Aike">Laguna Potrok Aike</a>, peat bogs including at <a href="/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre" title="Puerto del Hambre">Puerto del Hambre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punta_Arenas" title="Punta Arenas">Punta Arenas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological sites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2008444_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008444-132">[118]</a></sup> More distant sites include <a href="/wiki/Isla_de_los_Estados" title="Isla de los Estados">Isla de los Estados</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez20134_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez20134-133">[119]</a></sup> and Siple Dome in <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurbatovZielinskiDunbarMayewski200614_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurbatovZielinskiDunbarMayewski200614-134">[120]</a></sup> The Patagonian-Tierra del Fuego Tephra II originated in this eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> The wide dispersal of the ash was either due to the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_column" title="Eruption column">eruption column</a> exceeding 55 kilometres (34 mi) height or to strong winds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998300_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998300-126">[112]</a></sup> Similar to the 1991 eruption, the H1 eruption would have buried food and water resources and caused various health ailments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201310–11_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201310–11-135">[121]</a></sup> This would have caused a collapse of the terrestrial ecosystems in Patagonia,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311-136">[122]</a></sup> possibly causing a lasting shift of <a href="/wiki/Guanaco" title="Guanaco">guanaco</a> populations,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202223_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202223-137">[123]</a></sup> a population shift at <a href="/wiki/Cueva_de_las_Manos" title="Cueva de las Manos">Cueva de las Manos</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschero202151_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschero202151-138">[124]</a></sup> and the extinction of <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mitochondrial DNA">human mitochondrial DNA</a> lineages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurbonArenasCuadras2017310_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurbonArenasCuadras2017310-139">[125]</a></sup> More controversially,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharlin200958_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharlin200958-140">[126]</a></sup> the eruption may have caused a cessation of the southern Patagonian <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> trade,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2018196_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2018196-141">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020214_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020214-142">[128]</a></sup> and a shift towards the use of coastal resources by people in Patagonia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrquera2005110_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrquera2005110-143">[129]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_Tierra_del_Fuego">Impact on Tierra del Fuego</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact on Tierra del Fuego" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Impact on Tierra del Fuego"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The green-brown tephra deposits in Tierra del Fuego were produced by this eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213-124">[110]</a></sup> On Tierra del Fuego, the H1 tephra covers an area exceeding 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2008451_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008451-144">[130]</a></sup> Thicknesses reach 4 to 20 centimetres (2 to 8 in),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214-131">[117]</a></sup> thicker than deposits closer to the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998299_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998299-145">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>The H1 eruption had a severe impact on the environment of Tierra del Fuego, with the vegetation being buried by ash fall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020210_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020210-146">[132]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202216_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202216-147">[133]</a></sup> The impact on human populations in Tierra del Fuego would have been severe,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> possibly causing the total extinction of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> on Tierra del Fuego<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311-136">[122]</a></sup> or even of all human life on the island.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202228_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202228-148">[134]</a></sup> Vertebrates were decimated and large <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> wiped out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202215_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202215-149">[135]</a></sup> After the eruption, activities at the Túnel 1 archaeological site changed from a terrestrial lifestyle to one that relied on coastal food sources<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez20139_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez20139-150">[136]</a></sup> which were less vulnerable to volcanic impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201312_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201312-151">[137]</a></sup> The island may have been resettled over a millennium later by people arriving using <a href="/wiki/Bark_canoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Bark canoe">bark canoes</a>. These immigrants reintroduced mammals such as guanacos on the island.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202226_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202226-152">[138]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="H2_eruption:_4.2C200_BP"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="H2_eruption:_4,200_BP">H2 eruption: 4,200 BP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: H2 eruption: 4,200 BP" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: H2 eruption: 4,200 BP"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The H2 eruption occurred about 4,200 years<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[o]</a></sup> ago. Pumices form three or four distinct layers, which consist mostly of trachydacite and/or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trachyrhyolite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trachyrhyolite (page does not exist)">trachyrhyolite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214-154">[139]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998301_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998301-155">[140]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010239_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010239-128">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201416-62">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019142_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithSmithFontijnGebhardt2019142-125">[111]</a></sup> The eruption was smaller than the H1 eruption, but larger than the H3, reaching a volcanic explosivity index of six.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998301_155-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998301-155">[140]</a></sup> It or <a href="/wiki/Neoglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoglacial">neoglacial</a> climate change may have caused changes in the vegetation close to the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011389_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011389-156">[141]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ash layers have been found at various sites close to the volcano, with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryptotephra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cryptotephra (page does not exist)">cryptotephra</a> reaching the <a href="/wiki/Falklands" class="mw-redirect" title="Falklands">Falklands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998291–292_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998291–292-157">[142]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214-154">[139]</a></sup> The occurrence at Lago Quijada is the <a href="/wiki/Reference_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference section">reference section</a> for the H2 eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20213_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20213-158">[143]</a></sup> Unlike the H1 and H3 eruptions, the H2 ash was dispersed mainly to the east and at larger distances to the southeast, forming a wider deposit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214_154-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214-154">[139]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998301_155-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998301-155">[140]</a></sup> It has been identified in the <a href="/wiki/Los_Toldos_(Santa_Cruz)" title="Los Toldos (Santa Cruz)">Los Toldos</a>, Cerro Tres Tetas and La María archaeological sites;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214_154-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20214-154">[139]</a></sup> evidence at the Los Toldos archaeological site indicates that humans left the area after the H2 eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202212_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202212-159">[144]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="H3_eruption:_1991_AD">H3 eruption: 1991 AD</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: H3 eruption: 1991 AD" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: H3 eruption: 1991 AD"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GVP-04931.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A circular, ice-filled plain with a steaming pit. Ice is covered with grey ash and one dark lava (?) flow" src="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/GVP-04931.jpg/220px-GVP-04931.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/GVP-04931.jpg/330px-GVP-04931.jpg 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/GVP-04931.jpg/440px-GVP-04931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption>Cerro Hudson after the 1991 eruption</figcaption></figure>
<p>The 1991 Plinian eruption is known as the H3 eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup> After a few hours of <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> activity, a <a href="/wiki/Phreatomagmatic_eruption" title="Phreatomagmatic eruption">phreatomagmatic eruption</a> commenced on August 8 at 18:20 in the northwestern sector of the caldera.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199311_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199311-160">[145]</a></sup> The phreatomagmatic phase formed a 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) long fissure and a 400-metre (1,300 ft) wide crater. On August 12, a Plinian eruption formed a 800-metre (2,600 ft) wide crater in the southwestern sector. The eruption continued for the following three days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup> Seismic and <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumarolic</a> activity continued for the next months,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199325,_27_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199325,_27-161">[146]</a></sup> and small eruptions may have occurred in October.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142-162">[147]</a></sup>
</p><p>The initial phreatomagmatic eruption was basaltic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142-162">[147]</a></sup> The chemistry of the erupted rocks changed during the course of the eruption from trachyandesite to trachydacite,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> perhaps due to fractional crystallization of phenocrysts or <a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">amphibole</a> and magma mixing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201415_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201415-163">[148]</a></sup> Initially, basaltic magma rose in the edifice and entered a trachyandesitic reservoir at 2 to 3 kilometres (1.2 to 1.9 mi) depth, until the stresses opened up another pathway along local-scale fractures. This formed the northwestern vent and associated lava flows. Later, the roof of the reservoir failed, allowing the trachyandesitic magma to ascend to the surface and form the southwestern vent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009436_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009436-164">[149]</a></sup> The eruption may have been triggered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tectonic_stress&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tectonic stress (page does not exist)">tectonic stress</a> changes caused by the <a href="/wiki/1960_Valdivia_earthquake" title="1960 Valdivia earthquake">1960 Valdivia earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarzocchiCasarottiPiersanti20027_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarzocchiCasarottiPiersanti20027-165">[150]</a></sup>
</p><p>The eruption is the second-largest historic volcanic eruption in Chile, only behind the 1932 <a href="/wiki/Quizapu" class="mw-redirect" title="Quizapu">Quizapu</a> eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParraFigueroa1999468_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParraFigueroa1999468-30">[25]</a></sup> With a volcanic explosivity index of 5,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20227_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20227-166">[151]</a></sup> it is one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420-25">[21]</a></sup> It formed a 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) high eruption column and <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a> within the caldera.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki202212_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki202212-167">[152]</a></sup> A 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) long lava flow was emplaced on the caldera ice and flowed down the Huemules River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery-168">[153]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193-169">[154]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery-168">[153]</a></sup> Part of the ice cap melted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199312_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199312-170">[155]</a></sup> A lahar with a volume of about 0.04 to 0.045 cubic kilometres (0.0096 to 0.0108 cu mi) ran for 40 kilometres (25 mi) down the Huemules River<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton20152_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton20152-171">[156]</a></sup> to the Pacific Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199312_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199312-170">[155]</a></sup> Ash deposited by the volcano was eroded by rivers and redeposited in their <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a>, enlarging them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07-36">[31]</a></sup> Wind-driven erosion of the ash in the <a href="/wiki/Semiarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiarid">semiarid</a> region produced continued ash fall,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199327_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199327-172">[157]</a></sup> which was sometimes mistaken for renewed activity,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:11_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:11-173">[158]</a></sup> and 1.5-metre (4 ft 11 in) thick wind-blown dust accumulations formed in some areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-174">[159]</a></sup>
</p><p>More than 4 cubic kilometres (1 cu mi) of tephra fell along two axes: A narrow northern one and a much wider and longer east-southeast trending axis from the volcano in southern <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="South Atlantic Ocean">South Atlantic Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420-25">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83">[75]</a></sup> The northern ash was produced by the phreatomagmatic phase and the southeastern one by the Plinian phase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010240_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010240-175">[160]</a></sup> Ash fell over an area of about 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi) in Chile and Argentina,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParraFigueroa1999468_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParraFigueroa1999468-30">[25]</a></sup> reaching as far as the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia" title="South Georgia">South Georgia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343-176">[161]</a></sup> The ash fall buried vegetation and roads and caused house roofs to collapse. Animals saw their pastures buried and food contaminated by ash, their wools weighed down, and people reported problems with breathing and eyesight owing to the irritating ash.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-174">[159]</a></sup> Ailments<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178">[p]</a></sup> caused by the ash and preceding harsh winter killed about half of all grazing animals in the directly affected areas such as Argentina's <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Province,_Argentina" title="Santa Cruz Province, Argentina">Santa Cruz Province</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-10_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-10-179">[163]</a></sup> where damage exceeded 10,000,000 dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288-180">[164]</a></sup> Along with other climatic and economic crises, the Hudson eruption led to a severe depopulation in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiottiSalemmeHermo2022426_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiottiSalemmeHermo2022426-181">[165]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Intercontinental_spread_of_ash">Intercontinental spread of ash</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Intercontinental spread of ash" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Intercontinental spread of ash"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Winds transported the plume towards <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and in the westerlies surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Polar_vortex" title="Polar vortex">polar vortex</a>, circling the continent in a month<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20228_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20228-182">[166]</a></sup> and reaching Chile again after a week.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07-36">[31]</a></sup> Ash from the eruption was found in snow at the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>, arriving there in December,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222-183">[167]</a></sup> in ice cores of <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki202210_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki202210-184">[168]</a></sup> and in various sites of the northern <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a>, where it arrived in August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20229_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20229-185">[169]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">Aircraft</a> noted the ash cloud as far as <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> in Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:07-36">[31]</a></sup> Particles from Hudson have been found in ice at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalaya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalekEomHwangHur2019207_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalekEomHwangHur2019207-186">[170]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 1991 eruption of Hudson took place in the same year as the <a href="/wiki/1991_eruption_of_Mount_Pinatubo" title="1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo">1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20221_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20221-187">[171]</a></sup> The Pinatubo <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosols</a> had already spread worldwide when Hudson erupted. Unlike the Pinatubo eruption, Hudson mostly produced volcanic ash which fell out more quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222-183">[167]</a></sup> However, the Hudson cloud led to substantial <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> loss over Antarctica and had comparable effects in the southern hemisphere to the Pinatubo eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaseColarcoToonAquila2017_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaseColarcoToonAquila2017-188">[172]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_historical_activity">Other historical activity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other historical activity" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Other historical activity"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>There are reports of historical eruptions in the late 19th century, but only an 1891 eruption can be attributed to Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310-189">[173]</a></sup> There are single reports of eruptions in 1930<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETorrentHerreraBustamante201673_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorrentHerreraBustamante201673-190">[174]</a></sup> and 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangeCembranoRietbrockHaberland200816_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangeCembranoRietbrockHaberland200816-191">[175]</a></sup> A crater in the centre-western sector of the caldera may have been active around 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310-189">[173]</a></sup> A lahar in that year killed a number of animals and two shepherds; it may either be non-volcanic<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_43-73_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_43-73-192">[176]</a></sup> or due to a <a href="/wiki/Subglacial_eruption" title="Subglacial eruption">subglacial eruption</a>. Other lahars may have occurred in 1972 and 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142-162">[147]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the morning of 12 August 1971, tremors heralded the onset of a new eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992301-18">[14]</a></sup> It lasted for three days and reached a volcanic explosivity index of 3 to 4,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310-189">[173]</a></sup> smaller than the 1991 eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005208-13">[10]</a></sup> An eruption column rose 5 to 12 kilometres (3 to 7 mi) above the volcano and deposited tephra to the east into the South Atlantic Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310-189">[173]</a></sup> Ashfall buried pastures<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71-9">[7]</a></sup> and left deposits in lakes of the Chonos Archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998244_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998244-193">[177]</a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">lahar</a> descended the Huemules River, killing at least five people and damaging houses and farms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310-189">[173]</a></sup> The lahar dragged blocks of ice along,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton201515_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton201515-194">[178]</a></sup> swept the valley clear of trees and produced a <a href="/wiki/Pumice_raft" title="Pumice raft">pumice raft</a> in the sea off the mouth of the Huemules River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992303_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992303-195">[179]</a></sup> No pyroclastic flows formed during this eruption,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992301-18">[14]</a></sup> while subglacial lava flows may<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193-169">[154]</a></sup> or may not have formed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992301-18">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the 1990s, episodes of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gas</a> release killed animals in the Huemules valley. They do not appear to be linked to (visible) volcanic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411-196">[180]</a></sup>
</p><p>The last eruption was in October 2011,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup> and was preceded by increasing <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo201416_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo201416-197">[181]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> activity, the latter lasting for a few days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12-198">[182]</a></sup> The eruption began on October 26 and ended on November 1.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history_101-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Eruption_history-101">[89]</a></sup> Three vents formed in the southern sector of the caldera. Ash columns rose to almost 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) altitude.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12-198">[182]</a></sup> Lahars ran along several valleys surrounding the volcano, probably caused by ice interacting with the hydrothermal system of the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343_176-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343-176">[161]</a></sup> Chilean authorities evacuated about 140 people from the region due to the threat from ash fall and lahars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12_198-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12-198">[182]</a></sup>
</p><p>Between 1991 and 2008, uplift took place at the volcano. Initially at a pace of 5 centimetres per year (2 in/year), after 2004 it decreased to a rate of 2 centimetres per year (0.8 in/year).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013348_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013348-199">[183]</a></sup> The uplift was probably caused by the entry of new magma in Hudson's plumbing system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142-162">[147]</a></sup> Presently, shallow <a href="/wiki/Seismicity" title="Seismicity">seismicity</a> takes place under Hudson and south of it, between 0 to 10 kilometres (0 to 6 mi) underground, and is probably related to volcanic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAgurto-DetzelRietbrockBatailleMiller20148_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgurto-DetzelRietbrockBatailleMiller20148-200">[184]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Hazards">Hazards</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hazards" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Hazards"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The 1991 eruption has drawn attention to hazards stemming from Hudson and other Patagonian volcanoes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMateo20086_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMateo20086-201">[185]</a></sup> About 84,000 people<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202341_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202341-202">[186]</a></sup> live within 50 kilometres (31 mi) of Hudson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202340_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202340-12">[9]</a></sup> Despite the low population density in the regions of Argentina downwind of Hudson, ash fall could cause serious impacts on farming and animal husbandry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288-180">[164]</a></sup>
</p><p>Most eruptions led to tephra fallout around the volcano, with more intense eruptions producing pyroclastic flows outside of the caldera. <a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflows</a> caused by melting of ice or erosion of tephra and pyroclastic deposits have occurred in the Huemules and Ibáñez valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411_196-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411-196">[180]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the 1991 eruption of Hudson, the Argentine <a href="/wiki/SEGEMAR" class="mw-redirect" title="SEGEMAR">SEGEMAR</a> initiated a monitoring program for Argentine volcanoes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarciaBadi202123_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarciaBadi202123-203">[187]</a></sup> The Chilean <a href="/wiki/SERNAGEOMIN" class="mw-redirect" title="SERNAGEOMIN">SERNAGEOMIN</a> published a volcano hazard map in 2014, which shows areas threatened by lahars, lava flows, pyroclastic fall, pyroclastic flows, tephra fallout and volcanic bombs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202344_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202344-204">[188]</a></sup> According to the map, the highest hazards exist in the Huemules and Sorpresas valleys, in the caldera and its immediate surroundings. Other high-risk areas are the northern, southwestern and southeastern slopes of the volcano. Medium hazards occur in the rest of the valleys around Mount Hudson, with low hazard areas in the more distant valleys east of the volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201427_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201427-205">[189]</a></sup> As of 2023<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the municipal planning of the municipalities on the Chilean side close to the volcano largely ignores volcanic hazards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202349_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202349-206">[190]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Notes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The epoch between 2,58 million and 11,700 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICC2018-2">[2]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The epoch beginning 11,700 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICC2018-2">[2]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One source claims that it's technically the correct name of the volcano, giving the name "Hudson" to a different mountain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71-9">[7]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While it is often stated that the 1971 eruption led to its recognition as a volcano,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20144-14">[11]</a></sup> an unpublished report about the caldera was written in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19743_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuenzalidaEspinosa19743-15">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998291_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998291-16">[13]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It appears to consist of two or three nested calderas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1-28">[24]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The epoch between about 145 and 66 million years ago<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICC2018-2">[2]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The epoch beginning 23.03 million years ago<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICC2018-2">[2]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Including <a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">amphibole</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternNaranjo2015426_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternNaranjo2015426-43">[38]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Formerly it was thought that it had been largely inactive during the past 10,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992301-18">[14]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A lahar is a volcanic <a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">mudflow</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrowsky2013Lahar_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrowsky2013Lahar-87">[78]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">By <a href="/wiki/Argon-argon_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Argon-argon dating">argon-argon dating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2-74">[66]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conversion of CE to BP by adding 1950, and from AD by subtracting the AD from 1950</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Which may be an overestimate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertrandDagaBedertFontijn20142571_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertrandDagaBedertFontijn20142571-114">[102]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Older date estimates are 8260<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESternWeller2012878_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternWeller2012878-122">[109]</a></sup> or 6700 <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005215-31">[26]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Older estimates of its age are 3600<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010239_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010239-128">[114]</a></sup> or 3920 <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24">[20]</a></sup> </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Not <a href="/wiki/Fluoride_toxicity" title="Fluoride toxicity">fluorosis</a>, as is commonly reported.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:10_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:10-177">[162]</a></sup></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023General_Information_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, General Information.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEICC2018-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEICC2018_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFICC2018">ICC 2018</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks19936_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks1993">Naranjo S., Moreno R. & Banks 1993</a>, p. 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20142_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez2014">Weller et al. 2014</a>, p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESánchez190533-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESánchez190533_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSánchez1905">Sánchez 1905</a>, p. 33.</span>
</li>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_80-71_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report CSLP 80-71.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20146_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmigoBertin2014">Amigo & Bertin 2014</a>, p. 6.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992301-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992301_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBest1992">Best 1992</a>, p. 301.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin20147_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmigoBertin2014">Amigo & Bertin 2014</a>, p. 7.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005209_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGutiérrezGioncadaGonzález_FerranLahsen2005">Gutiérrez et al. 2005</a>, p. 209.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998292_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjoStern1998">Naranjo & Stern 1998</a>, p. 292.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20143_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez2014">Weller et al. 2014</a>, p. 3.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009420_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009">Kratzmann et al. 2009</a>, p. 420.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_1_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004">Orihashi et al. 2004</a>, Hudson Volcano 1.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004Hudson_Volcano_2_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOrihashiNaranjoMotokiSumino2004">Orihashi et al. 2004</a>, Hudson Volcano 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011381-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011381_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011">Mardones et al. 2011</a>, p. 381.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez201413–14_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez2014">Weller et al. 2014</a>, pp. 13–14.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech201199-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarelSianiDelpech201199_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarelSianiDelpech2011">Carel, Siani & Delpech 2011</a>, p. 99.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez20145_83-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWellerMirandaMorenoVilla-Martínez2014">Weller et al. 2014</a>, p. 5.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010237_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010">Kratzmann et al. 2010</a>, p. 237.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_20:02-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_20:02_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report BGVN 20:02.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202213_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 13.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202214_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 14.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201311_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrietoSternEstévez2013">Prieto, Stern & Estévez 2013</a>, p. 11.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202223-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202223_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 23.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschero202151-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschero202151_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAschero2021">Aschero 2021</a>, p. 51.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECharlin200958-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharlin200958_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCharlin2009">Charlin 2009</a>, p. 58.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008451-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2008451_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStern2008">Stern 2008</a>, p. 451.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998299-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjoStern1998299_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjoStern1998">Naranjo & Stern 1998</a>, p. 299.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020210-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020210_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFernándezPonceZangrandoBorromei2020">Fernández et al. 2020</a>, p. 210.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202228-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202228_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 28.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202215-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202215_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 15.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez20139-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez20139_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrietoSternEstévez2013">Prieto, Stern & Estévez 2013</a>, p. 9.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201312-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrietoSternEstévez201312_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrietoSternEstévez2013">Prieto, Stern & Estévez 2013</a>, p. 12.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202226-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202226_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 26.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011389-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011389_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMardonesGonzalezKingCampos2011">Mardones et al. 2011</a>, p. 389.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20213-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney20213_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney2021">Panaretos et al. 2021</a>, p. 3.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin202212-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin202212_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin2022">Franklin 2022</a>, p. 12.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199311-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199311_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks1993">Naranjo S., Moreno R. & Banks 1993</a>, p. 11.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199325,_27-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199325,_27_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks1993">Naranjo S., Moreno R. & Banks 1993</a>, pp. 25, 27.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo20142_162-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo2014">Delgado et al. 2014</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009436-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009436_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2009">Kratzmann et al. 2009</a>, p. 436.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20227-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20227_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki2022">Evangelista et al. 2022</a>, p. 7.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki202212-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki202212_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki2022">Evangelista et al. 2022</a>, p. 12.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Photo_Gallery_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Photo Gallery.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018193_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarrLynchMullanDe_Siena2018">Barr et al. 2018</a>, p. 193.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton20152-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton20152_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton2015">Iribarren Anacona, Mackintosh & Norton 2015</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199327-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199327_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks1993">Naranjo S., Moreno R. & Banks 1993</a>, p. 27.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:11-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:11_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report BGVN 16:11.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010240-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010240_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKratzmannCareyScassoNaranjo2010">Kratzmann et al. 2010</a>, p. 240.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343_176-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202343_176-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeoffroyCiocca2023">Geoffroy & Ciocca 2023</a>, p. 43.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:10-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:10_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report BGVN 16:10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-10-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_16:09-10_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report BGVN 16:09-10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeruccaMoreiras2009288_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeruccaMoreiras2009">Perucca & Moreiras 2009</a>, p. 288.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiottiSalemmeHermo2022426-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiottiSalemmeHermo2022426_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiottiSalemmeHermo2022">Miotti, Salemme & Hermo 2022</a>, p. 426.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20228-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20228_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki2022">Evangelista et al. 2022</a>, p. 8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222_183-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki20222_183-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvangelistaCastagnaCorreiaPotocki2022">Evangelista et al. 2022</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaseColarcoToonAquila2017-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaseColarcoToonAquila2017_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaseColarcoToonAquila2017">Case et al. 2017</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks199310_189-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaranjo_S.Moreno_R.Banks1993">Naranjo S., Moreno R. & Banks 1993</a>, p. 10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETorrentHerreraBustamante201673-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETorrentHerreraBustamante201673_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTorrentHerreraBustamante2016">Torrent, Herrera & Bustamante 2016</a>, p. 73.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangeCembranoRietbrockHaberland200816-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangeCembranoRietbrockHaberland200816_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangeCembranoRietbrockHaberland2008">Lange et al. 2008</a>, p. 16.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_43-73-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_CSLP_43-73_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report CSLP 43-73.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998244-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberleLumley1998244_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaberleLumley1998">Haberle & Lumley 1998</a>, p. 244.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton201515-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton201515_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIribarren_AnaconaMackintoshNorton2015">Iribarren Anacona, Mackintosh & Norton 2015</a>, p. 15.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBest1992303-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBest1992303_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBest1992">Best 1992</a>, p. 303.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411_196-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201411_196-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmigoBertin2014">Amigo & Bertin 2014</a>, p. 11.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo201416-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo201416_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDelgadoPritchardLohmanNaranjo2014">Delgado et al. 2014</a>, p. 16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGVP2023Bulletin_Report_BGVN_38:12_198-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGVP2023">GVP 2023</a>, Bulletin Report BGVN 38:12.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013348-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiveraBown2013348_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRiveraBown2013">Rivera & Bown 2013</a>, p. 348.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgurto-DetzelRietbrockBatailleMiller20148-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAgurto-DetzelRietbrockBatailleMiller20148_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAgurto-DetzelRietbrockBatailleMiller2014">Agurto-Detzel et al. 2014</a>, p. 8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202341-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202341_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeoffroyCiocca2023">Geoffroy & Ciocca 2023</a>, p. 41.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarciaBadi202123-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarciaBadi202123_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarciaBadi2021">Garcia & Badi 2021</a>, p. 23.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202344-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202344_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeoffroyCiocca2023">Geoffroy & Ciocca 2023</a>, p. 44.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201427-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmigoBertin201427_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmigoBertin2014">Amigo & Bertin 2014</a>, p. 27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202349-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffroyCiocca202349_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeoffroyCiocca2023">Geoffroy & Ciocca 2023</a>, p. 49.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Sources"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMasiokasRiveraEspizuaVillalba2009" class="citation journal cs1">Masiokas, Mariano H.; Rivera, Andrés; Espizua, Lydia E.; Villalba, Ricardo; Delgado, Silvia; Aravena, Juan Carlos (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018209003265">"Glacier fluctuations in extratropical South America during the past 1000years"</a>. <i>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</i>. <b>281</b> (3–4): 242–268. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PPP...281..242M">2009PPP...281..242M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2009.08.006">10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.08.006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=Glacier+fluctuations+in+extratropical+South+America+during+the+past+1000years&rft.volume=281&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=242-268&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2009.08.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PPP...281..242M&rft.aulast=Masiokas&rft.aufirst=Mariano+H.&rft.au=Rivera%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Espizua%2C+Lydia+E.&rft.au=Villalba%2C+Ricardo&rft.au=Delgado%2C+Silvia&rft.au=Aravena%2C+Juan+Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0031018209003265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Hudson" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMiottiSalemmeHermo2022" class="citation book cs1">Miotti, Laura; Salemme, Monica; Hermo, Darío, eds. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1"><i>Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality: An Open Window to the Early Population of Patagonia</i></a>. The Latin American Studies Book Series. Cham: Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-92503-1">10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-92502-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-92502-4"><bdi>978-3-030-92502-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246573778">246573778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+Piedra+Museo+Locality%3A+An+Open+Window+to+the+Early+Population+of+Patagonia&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=The+Latin+American+Studies+Book+Series&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246573778%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-92503-1&rft.isbn=978-3-030-92502-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-92503-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Hudson" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMoraTassara2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mora, David; Tassara, Andrés (1 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/216/3/1549/5173043">"Upper crustal decompression due to deglaciation-induced flexural unbending and its role on post-glacial volcanism at the Southern Andes"</a>. <i>Geophysical Journal International</i>. <b>216</b> (3): 1549–1559. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgji%2Fggy473">10.1093/gji/ggy473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Journal+International&rft.atitle=Upper+crustal+decompression+due+to+deglaciation-induced+flexural+unbending+and+its+role+on+post-glacial+volcanism+at+the+Southern+Andes&rft.volume=216&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1549-1559&rft.date=2019-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgji%2Fggy473&rft.aulast=Mora&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Tassara%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fgji%2Farticle%2F216%2F3%2F1549%2F5173043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Hudson" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPanaretosAlbertThomasTurney2021" class="citation journal cs1">Panaretos, Panayiotis; Albert, Paul G.; Thomas, Zoë A.; Turney, Chris S.M.; Stern, Charles R.; Jones, Gwydion; Williams, Alan N.; Smith, Victoria C.; Hogg, Alan G.; Manning, Christina J. (August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027737912100281X">"Distal ash fall from the mid-Holocene eruption of Mount Hudson (H2) discovered in the Falkland Islands: New possibilities for Southern Hemisphere archive synchronisation"</a>. <i>Quaternary Science Reviews</i>. <b>266</b>: 107074. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021QSRv..26607074P">2021QSRv..26607074P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2021.107074">10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107074</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237258918">237258918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Distal+ash+fall+from+the+mid-Holocene+eruption+of+Mount+Hudson+%28H2%29+discovered+in+the+Falkland+Islands%3A+New+possibilities+for+Southern+Hemisphere+archive+synchronisation&rft.volume=266&rft.pages=107074&rft.date=2021-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A237258918%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2021.107074&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021QSRv..26607074P&rft.aulast=Panaretos&rft.aufirst=Panayiotis&rft.au=Albert%2C+Paul+G.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Zo%C3%AB+A.&rft.au=Turney%2C+Chris+S.M.&rft.au=Stern%2C+Charles+R.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Gwydion&rft.au=Williams%2C+Alan+N.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Victoria+C.&rft.au=Hogg%2C+Alan+G.&rft.au=Manning%2C+Christina+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS027737912100281X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Hudson" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVandekerkhoveBertrandReidBartels2016" class="citation journal cs1">Vandekerkhove, Elke; Bertrand, Sébastien; Reid, Brian; Bartels, Astrid; Charlier, Bernard (30 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/esp.3840">"Sources of dissolved silica to the fjords of northern Patagonia (44–48°S): the importance of volcanic ash soil distribution and weathering"</a>. <i>Earth Surface Processes and Landforms</i>. <b>41</b> (4): 499–512. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ESPL...41..499V">2016ESPL...41..499V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fesp.3840">10.1002/esp.3840</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2268%2F198359">2268/198359</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54943497">54943497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+Surface+Processes+and+Landforms&rft.atitle=Sources+of+dissolved+silica+to+the+fjords+of+northern+Patagonia+%2844%E2%80%9348%C2%B0S%29%3A+the+importance+of+volcanic+ash+soil+distribution+and+weathering&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=499-512&rft.date=2016-03-30&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2268%2F198359&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54943497%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fesp.3840&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016ESPL...41..499V&rft.aulast=Vandekerkhove&rft.aufirst=Elke&rft.au=Bertrand%2C+S%C3%A9bastien&rft.au=Reid%2C+Brian&rft.au=Bartels%2C+Astrid&rft.au=Charlier%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1002%2Fesp.3840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Hudson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Hudson&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Bibliography"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bitschene, Peter René (1995). <i>La erupcion del volcan Hudson (Andes Patagonicos) en agosto 1991</i>. Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/883455940">883455940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+erupcion+del+volcan+Hudson+%28Andes+Patagonicos%29+en+agosto+1991&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+de+la+Patagonia+San+Juan+Bosco&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F883455940&rft.aulast=Bitschene&rft.aufirst=Peter+Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Hudson" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Andean_volcanoes" title="Template talk:Andean volcanoes"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Andean_volcanoes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Andean volcanoes"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Andean_volcanoes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Andean volcanoes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Volcanic Zone<br />(6° N – 3° S)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paipa-Iza_volcanic_complex" title="Paipa-Iza volcanic complex">Paipa-Iza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romeral_(volcano)" title="Romeral (volcano)">Romeral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Bravo" title="Cerro Bravo">Cerro Bravo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nevado_del_Ruiz" title="Nevado del Ruiz">Nevado del Ruiz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nevado_del_Tolima" title="Nevado del Tolima">Nevado del Tolima</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nevado_del_Huila" title="Nevado del Huila">Nevado del Huila</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purac%C3%A9" title="Puracé">Puracé</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Do%C3%B1a_Juana" title="Doña Juana">Doña Juana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galeras" title="Galeras">Galeras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Azufral" title="Azufral">Azufral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chiles_(volcano)" title="Chiles (volcano)">Chiles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cayambe_(volcano)" title="Cayambe (volcano)">Cayambe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reventador" title="Reventador">Reventador</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pichincha_(volcano)" title="Pichincha (volcano)">Pichincha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antisana" title="Antisana">Antisana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aliso_(volcano)" title="Aliso (volcano)">Aliso</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soche" title="Soche">Soche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illiniza" title="Illiniza">Illiniza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cotopaxi" title="Cotopaxi">Cotopaxi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quilotoa" title="Quilotoa">Quilotoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chimborazo" title="Chimborazo">Chimborazo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tungurahua" title="Tungurahua">Tungurahua</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Licto_volcanic_field" title="Licto volcanic field">Licto volcanic field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sangay" title="Sangay">Sangay</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Volcanic Zone<br />(14°–27° S)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quimsachata_(Canchis)" title="Quimsachata (Canchis)">Quimsachata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auquihuato" title="Auquihuato">Auquihuato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Firura" title="Firura">Firura</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Sara" title="Sara Sara">Sara Sara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solimana_(volcano)" title="Solimana (volcano)">Solimana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coropuna" title="Coropuna">Coropuna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hualca_Hualca" title="Hualca Hualca">Hualca Hualca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sabancaya" title="Sabancaya">Sabancaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Huambo_volcanic_field" title="Huambo volcanic field">Huambo volcanic field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ampato" title="Ampato">Ampato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andagua_volcanic_field" title="Andagua volcanic field">Andagua volcanic field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chachani" title="Chachani">Chachani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Misti" title="Misti">Misti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ubinas" title="Ubinas">Ubinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pichu_Pichu" title="Pichu Pichu">Pichu Pichu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Huaynaputina" title="Huaynaputina">Huaynaputina</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ticsani" title="Ticsani">Ticsani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tutupaca" title="Tutupaca">Tutupaca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yucamane" title="Yucamane">Yucamane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purupuruni" title="Purupuruni">Purupuruni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casiri_(Tacna)" title="Casiri (Tacna)">Casiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tacora" title="Tacora">Tacora</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taapaca" title="Taapaca">Taapaca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parinacota_(volcano)" title="Parinacota (volcano)">Parinacota</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lauca_(volcano)" title="Lauca (volcano)">Lauca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guallatiri" title="Guallatiri">Guallatiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tata_Sabaya" title="Tata Sabaya">Tata Sabaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isluga" title="Isluga">Isluga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Irruputuncu" title="Irruputuncu">Irruputuncu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Olca-Paruma" title="Olca-Paruma">Olca-Paruma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aucanquilcha" title="Aucanquilcha">Aucanquilcha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_del_Azufre" title="Cerro del Azufre">Azufre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zapaleri" title="Zapaleri">Zapaleri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sairecabur" title="Sairecabur">Sairecabur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Licancabur" title="Licancabur">Licancabur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purico_complex" title="Purico complex">Purico complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/La_Pacana" title="La Pacana">Pacana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aguas_Calientes_(volcano)" title="Aguas Calientes (volcano)">Aguas Calientes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lascar_(volcano)" title="Lascar (volcano)">Lascar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chiliques" title="Chiliques">Chiliques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aracar" title="Aracar">Aracar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socompa" title="Socompa">Socompa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Llullaillaco" title="Llullaillaco">Llullaillaco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lastarria" title="Lastarria">Lastarria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lazufre" title="Lazufre">Lazufre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cord%C3%B3n_del_Azufre" title="Cordón del Azufre">Cordón del Azufre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1n" title="Galán">Galán</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peinado" title="Peinado">Peinado</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nevado_San_Francisco" title="Nevado San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cueros_de_Purulla" title="Cueros de Purulla">Cueros de Purulla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Incahuasi" title="Incahuasi">Incahuasi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ojos_del_Salado" title="Ojos del Salado">Ojos del Salado</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Volcanic Zone<br />(33°–46° S)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tupungato" title="Tupungato">Tupungato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tupungatito" title="Tupungatito">Tupungatito</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maipo_(volcano)" title="Maipo (volcano)">Maipo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calabozos" title="Calabozos">Calabozos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descabezado_Grande" title="Descabezado Grande">Descabezado Grande</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Azul_(Chile_volcano)" title="Cerro Azul (Chile volcano)">Cerro Azul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nevado_de_Longav%C3%AD" title="Nevado de Longaví">Nevado de Longaví</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nevados_de_Chill%C3%A1n" title="Nevados de Chillán">Nevados de Chillán</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antuco_(volcano)" title="Antuco (volcano)">Antuco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copahue" title="Copahue">Copahue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Callaqui" title="Callaqui">Callaqui</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lonquimay_(volcano)" title="Lonquimay (volcano)">Lonquimay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Llaima" title="Llaima">Llaima</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sollipulli" title="Sollipulli">Sollipulli</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Villarrica_(volcano)" title="Villarrica (volcano)">Villarrica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quetrupill%C3%A1n" title="Quetrupillán">Quetrupillán</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lan%C3%ADn" title="Lanín">Lanín</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mocho-Choshuenco" title="Mocho-Choshuenco">Mocho-Choshuenco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carr%C3%A1n-Los_Venados" title="Carrán-Los Venados">Carrán-Los Venados</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Puyehue-Cord%C3%B3n_Caulle" title="Puyehue-Cordón Caulle">Puyehue-Cordón Caulle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casablanca_(volcano)" title="Casablanca (volcano)">Casablanca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Osorno_(volcano)" title="Osorno (volcano)">Osorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calbuco_(volcano)" title="Calbuco (volcano)">Calbuco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hornopir%C3%A9n_(volcano)" title="Hornopirén (volcano)">Hornopirén</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Huequi" title="Huequi">Huequi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michinmahuida" title="Michinmahuida">Michinmahuida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chait%C3%A9n_(volcano)" title="Chaitén (volcano)">Chaitén</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corcovado_Volcano" title="Corcovado Volcano">Corcovado</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mentolat" title="Mentolat">Mentolat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cay_(volcano)" title="Cay (volcano)">Cay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Mac%C3%A1" title="Cerro Macá">Macá</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mate_Grande" title="Mate Grande">Mate Grande</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hudson</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austral Volcanic Zone<br />(49°–55° S)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lautaro_(volcano)" title="Lautaro (volcano)">Lautaro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viedma_(volcano)" title="Viedma (volcano)">Viedma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aguilera_(volcano)" title="Aguilera (volcano)">Aguilera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reclus_(volcano)" title="Reclus (volcano)">Reclus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Burney" title="Monte Burney">Burney</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fueguino" title="Fueguino">Fueguino</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span style="font-size:85%;">Note: volcanoes are ordered by latitude from north to south</span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1055899#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1055899#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Q1055899#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/media/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /media/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/627145857985523021602">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007563620205171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh97003870">United States</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=358057">Global Volcanism Program</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
