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Several notable nurse anesthetist from the early 20th century are revered by their modern counterparts. Agnes McGee taught at the Oregon Health Science Center.<ref name="Thatcherfirstschool"/> Alice Hunt was appointed instructor in anesthesia with university rank at the [[Yale University School of Medicine]] beginning in 1922 and continuing for 26 years.<ref name="Thatcherhunt">Thatcher, V.S. (1953) ''History of Anesthesia, With Emphasis on the Nurse Specialist.'' Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, p. 101-102.</ref> She authored the 1949 book ''Anesthesia, Principles and Practice,'' likely the first nurse anesthesia textbook.
Several notable nurse anesthetist from the early 20th century are revered by their modern counterparts. Agnes McGee taught at the Oregon Health Science Center.<ref name="Thatcherfirstschool"/> Alice Hunt was appointed instructor in anesthesia with university rank at the [[Yale University School of Medicine]] beginning in 1922 and continuing for 26 years.<ref name="Thatcherhunt">Thatcher, V.S. (1953) ''History of Anesthesia, With Emphasis on the Nurse Specialist.'' Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, p. 101-102.</ref> She authored the 1949 book ''Anesthesia, Principles and Practice,'' likely the first nurse anesthesia textbook.


[[File:Alice Magaw (1860-1928) administering anesthesia at the Mayo Clinic.png|Alice Magaw (1860-1928) administering anesthesia at the Mayo Clinic|300px|thumb|right|[[Alice Magaw]] administering anesthesia at the [[Mayo Clinic]].]]
The first challenge to the nurse's right to administer anesthesia came in 1911 from Francis Hoeffer McMechan, a native Cincinnati physician, who felt that the field of anesthesia should belong solely to physicians. McMechen challenged the practice of nurse anesthesia with the Ohio Medical Board, which along with Ohio State Attorney General ruled in 1916 that only a registered physician could administer anesthesia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMechan |first1=F. H. |title=The Ohio State Medical Board and the nurse anesthetist |journal=Am J Surg |date=1916 |volume=30 |page=130}}</ref> Surgeons at the Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland, such as Crile, initially obeyed the ruling; however, in 1917, Crile and his supporters successfully lobbied the Ohio legislature to create an exemption within the Medical Practice Act for nurses who were educated appropriately to administer anesthesia under the supervision of a physician.<ref> Bankert, M. (1989) ''Watchful Care; A History of America's Nurse Anesthetists.'' New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, p. 107-123, 137-139.</ref>
The first challenge to the nurse's right to administer anesthesia came in 1911 from Francis Hoeffer McMechan, a native Cincinnati physician, who felt that the field of anesthesia should belong solely to physicians. McMechen challenged the practice of nurse anesthesia with the Ohio Medical Board, which along with Ohio State Attorney General ruled in 1916 that only a registered physician could administer anesthesia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMechan |first1=F. H. |title=The Ohio State Medical Board and the nurse anesthetist |journal=Am J Surg |date=1916 |volume=30 |page=130}}</ref> Surgeons at the Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland, such as Crile, initially obeyed the ruling; however, in 1917, Crile and his supporters successfully lobbied the Ohio legislature to create an exemption within the Medical Practice Act for nurses who were educated appropriately to administer anesthesia under the supervision of a physician.<ref> Bankert, M. (1989) ''Watchful Care; A History of America's Nurse Anesthetists.'' New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, p. 107-123, 137-139.</ref>


Revision as of 22:39, 20 July 2021

CRNA
A nurse anesthetist administers a local anesthetic.
Occupation
Activity sectors
Anesthesia, Nursing
Description
Education required
Fields of
employment

A Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist (CRNA) is a specialized type of advanced practice nurse in the United States. CRNA schools issue a master's or doctorate degree to nurses who have completed a program in anesthesia, which ranges from 2-3 years in length.[1] CRNAs account for approximately half of the anesthesia providers in the United States and are the main providers of anesthesia in rural America.[2] Historically, nurse anesthetists have been providing anesthesia care to patients since the American Civil War and the CRNA credential came into existence in 1956.[3]

Scope of practice and practitioner oversight requirements vary between healthcare facility and state, with 20 states and Guam granting complete autonomy as of 2021.[4] In states that have opted out of supervision, the Joint Commission and CMS recognize CRNAs as licensed independent practitioners.[5] In states requiring supervision, CRNAs have liability separate from supervising practitioners and are able to administer anesthesia independently of anesthesiologists.[6][7][8][9]

History

1800s and the American Civil War

Among the first American nurses to provide anesthetics was Catherine S. Lawrence during the American Civil War. It was during the Second Battle of Bull Run in 1863 that she administered chloroform to wounded soldiers who needed emergency operations in the battlefield.[10] Nevertheless, it still took several years for nurses to step forward and formally answer the call to provide anesthesia. Reasons for this delay included lack of training, the non-emergency nature of civilian surgical practice after the war was over, and the paucity of role models and sponsors. However, the wartime concept of nurses providing anesthesia care gradually took root as surgeons trained and encouraged nurses to take on this important role.[11]

Catholic nuns played an important role in the training of nurses and also in anesthesia. The earliest recorded nurse to specialize in anesthesia was Sister Mary Bernard Sheridan (1860-1924), a Catholic nun who practiced in 1877 at St. Vincent's Hospital in Erie, Pennsylvania.[11] Her influence spread throughout the Midwest,and many other Catholic nuns who were also nurses began training to administer anesthesia. Nuns of the Third Order of the Hospital Sisters of St Francis from Münster established a community in Springfield, Illinois, and on June 22, 1879, they founded St John's Hospital.[12] At St John's, the administration of chloroform and ether was taught to the nurses by surgeons, and many of the Franciscan Sisters were assigned as anesthetists throughout the Midwest. Nurse anesthesia became “undoubtedly a prevailing practice in many Catholic hospitals”.[13][14]

Catherine Lawrence (1820-1904) in a photograph taken during the American Civil War

In 1883, Minnesota was devastated by a tornado. Mother Alfred Moes and the Sisters of Saint Francis proposed building a hospital to aid the sick and injured in Southern Minnesota. However, they stipulated that William Worrall Mayo (1819-1911) and his sons work at the hospital. The Mayos agreed, and in 1889, St Mary's Hospital opened with 27 beds.[15] Although Catholic nuns seemed tobe the most influential force in teaching nurses to administer anesthesia in the late 1800s, it was William W. Mayo who should be credited for promoting the popularity of nurse anesthesia practice.[16] Mayo and his sons William J. Mayo (1861-1939) and Charles H. Mayo (1865-1939) were well known for their surgical skills. Surgeons traveled from across the country to their clinic in Minnesota to observe operations and learn their surgical techniques. However, the visiting surgeons also took note of the nurses administering anesthesia at the head of the operating table.[17]

One of the most well-known nurse anesthesia pioneers was Alice Magaw (1860-1928), who came to St Mary's Hospital in Rochester, Minnesota, in 1893. She was trained by the Graham sisters, Edith (1871-1943) and Dinah (1860-1947), and began working as a nurse anesthetist for Charles H. Mayo, who bestowed on her the title of“Mother of Anesthesia” due to her natural aptitude and mastery of safe administration of open-drop ether.[18] In addition to being skilled, Magaw documented and evaluated all her anesthesia procedures, culminating with a landmark article in nurse-anesthesia history.[19] An even larger work (A Review of Over Fourteen Thousand Surgical Anesthesias) was published in 1906, reporting huge number of open-drop ether anesthetics, incredibly without a single fatality.[20] Magaw's work highlighted the benefits of the trained anesthetist, allowing great advances in the practice of medicine. As the reputation and success of the Mayo Clinic spread, so did the renown of the Mayo Clinic nurse anesthetists.[21]

The sustainability and historical longevity of the practice of nurse anesthesia can be attributed to excellent working relationships between nurse anesthetists and surgeons.Impressed by the provision of superior anesthesia by nurses at St Mary's, following the example of the Mayo Clinic,prominent Cleveland surgeon George Washington Crile (1864-1943) recruited Agatha Cobourg Hodgins (1877-1945) as his personal anesthetist in 1908. [22]

1900s and initial challenges

Several notable nurse anesthetist from the early 20th century are revered by their modern counterparts. Agnes McGee taught at the Oregon Health Science Center.[23] Alice Hunt was appointed instructor in anesthesia with university rank at the Yale University School of Medicine beginning in 1922 and continuing for 26 years.[24] She authored the 1949 book Anesthesia, Principles and Practice, likely the first nurse anesthesia textbook.

Alice Magaw administering anesthesia at the Mayo Clinic.

The first challenge to the nurse's right to administer anesthesia came in 1911 from Francis Hoeffer McMechan, a native Cincinnati physician, who felt that the field of anesthesia should belong solely to physicians. McMechen challenged the practice of nurse anesthesia with the Ohio Medical Board, which along with Ohio State Attorney General ruled in 1916 that only a registered physician could administer anesthesia.[25] Surgeons at the Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland, such as Crile, initially obeyed the ruling; however, in 1917, Crile and his supporters successfully lobbied the Ohio legislature to create an exemption within the Medical Practice Act for nurses who were educated appropriately to administer anesthesia under the supervision of a physician.[26]

Perhaps the most noteworthy challenge occurred in 1934, when nurse anesthetist Dagmar Nelson (1892-1958) was charged by a physician, William VaneChalmer-Francis (1876-1950), with practicing medicine and violating California Medical Practice by administering anesthesia without a license. The case went all the way to the California Supreme court, but Nelson was given favorable ruling at each level of the case.[27] The Dagmar Nelson case was won via precedents set by early nurse anesthetists. First, the Court reasoned that Nelson's practice of anesthesia was in“accordance with the uniform practice in operating rooms”not only in Los Angeles but also throughout the country including the Mayo Clinic, where Nelson had trained and “where...one hundred thousand surgical operations had been performed” with anesthetic administered by nurses.[28]

Despite the rapid growth of the nurse anesthetist profession following the World War I, World War II again precipitated a shortage of anesthetists. A recruitment campaign was begun, but this was quickly followed by concern about the emergence of “ill advised and unjustified schools”.[29] Helen Lamb in turn stressed the importance of maintaining educational standards even in times of shortages. By the end of WWII, the military had trained more than 2000 nurses to provide anesthesia using a program patterned by the NANA. The quality of nurse anesthesia education was again upgraded following WWII, and although university affiliation was advised, most programs were still hospital based. In 1933, the NANA established an Education Committee to develop educational standards, and by 1952, formal accreditation standards were in place.[30]

History of education

The first school of nurse anesthesia was formed in 1909 at St. Vincent Hospital, Portland, Oregon. Established by Agnes McGee, the course was seven months long, and included courses on anatomy and physiology, pharmacology, and administration of the few common anesthetic agents available at the time.[23] Within the next decade, approximately 19 schools opened. All consisted of post-graduate anesthesia training for nurses and were about six months in length. These included programs at Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Barnes Hospital, New York Post-Graduate Hospital, Charity Hospital in New Orleans, Grace Hospital in Detroit, among others.[31] During those early days of administering anesthetics, knowledge and available anesthetic options were extremely limited and programs provided what little education they could for all levels of health providers. For example, in 1915, chief nurse anesthetist Agatha Hodgins established the Lakeside Hospital School of Anesthesia in Cleveland, Ohio. This program was open to nurses, physicians, and dentists. The training was only six months and the tuition was $50. In its first year, it graduated six physicians, eleven nurses, and two dentists.[32]

The didactic curricula of nurse-anesthesia programs is governed by the COA standards. Accredited programs provide supervised experiences for students with patients of all ages who require medical, surgical, obstetrical, dental, and pediatric interventions.[33] Programs require study in methods of scientific inquiry and statistics, as well as active participation in a student-generated and faculty-sponsored research project. Among the oldest schools in the U.S., Ravenswood Hospital in Chicago, opened in 1925 by Mae Cameron, which in 2001 became the NorthShore University HealthSystem School of Nurse Anesthesia, was the first school to be accredited by the Council on Accreditation of Nurse Anesthesia Educational Programs in 1952.[34][35]

In the 21st century, CRNAs in the United States are required to have a Master's or Doctoral degree in nurse anesthesia. The Nursing Council on Accreditation develops requirements for degree programs. In 1981, the Council on Accreditation developed guidelines for master's degrees. In 1982, it was the official position of the AANA board of directors that registered nurses applying for a school of anesthesia shall be, at minimum, baccalaureate prepared and then complete a master's level anesthesia program.[36] As early as 1978, the Kaiser Permanente California State University program had evolved to a master's level program. All programs were required to transition to a master's degree beginning in 1990 and complete the process by 1998.[37] Currently, the American Association of Colleges of Nursing has endorsed a position statement that will move the current entry level of training and education of nurse anesthetists in the United States to the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) or Doctor of Nurse Anesthesia Practice (DNAP).[38] This move will affect all advance practice nurses, with a mandatory implementation by the year 2015.[39] In August 2007, the AANA announced its support of this advanced clinical degree as an entry level for practice of all nurse anesthetists with a target compliance date of 2025. In accordance with traditional grandfathering rules, all those in current practice will not be affected and neither will the training provided to those now receiving the DNP or DNAP designation.[38] Currently, more than 50% of the 120 nurse anesthesia programs have already transitioned to the DNP or DNAP entry level format.[40]

Armed forces

A CRNA administers anesthesia to an Afghan child at the Afghan National Army-run Paktya Regional Medical Hospital.

Nurse anesthetists serve in the United States armed forces. In some military treatment facilities, nurse anesthetists function as the only licensed independent anesthesia practitioners, including U.S. Navy ships at sea. They also provide anesthesia for the Veterans Administration and Public Health Service medical facilities.

During World War I, America's nurse anesthetists cared for troops in France. From 1914 to 1915, three years prior to America entering the war, Dr. George Crile and nurse anesthetists Agatha Hodgins and Mabel Littleton served in the Lakeside Unit at the American Ambulance at Neuilly-sur-Seine in France.[41][42] In addition, they helped train the French and British nurses and physicians in anesthesia care. In 1917, the American participation in the war resulted in the U.S. military training nurse anesthetists for service. The Army and Navy sent nurses anesthesia trainees to various hospitals, including the Mayo Clinic at Rochester and the Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland before overseas service.[43]

Among notable nurse anesthetists are Sophie Gran Winton. She served with the Red Cross at an army hospital in Château-Thierry, France, and earned the French Croix de Guerre in addition to other service awards.[44] In addition, Anne Penland was the first nurse anesthetist to serve on the British Front and was decorated by the British government.[45]

American nurse anesthetists also served in World War II and Korea.[46] Second Lieutenant Mildred Irene Clark provided anesthesia for casualties from the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.[47] During the Vietnam War, nurse anesthetists served as both CRNAs and flight nurses, and also developed new field equipment.[48] Nurse anesthetists have been casualties of war. Lieutenants Kenneth R. Shoemaker, Jr. and Jerome E. Olmsted, were killed in an air evac mission en route to Qui Nhon, Vietnam.[49]

At least one nurse anesthetist was a prisoner of war. Army Nurse anesthetist Annie Mealer endured a three-year imprisonment by the Japanese in the Philippines, and was released in 1945.[50] During the Iraq War, nurse anesthetists provide care at forward positioned medical treatment facilities.[51] In addition, they play a role in the continuing education and training of Department of Defense nurses and technicians in the care of wartime trauma patients.

Certification

Board certification and recertification process is governed by the National Board on Certification and Recertification of Nurse Anesthetists (NBCRNA). The NBCRNA exists as an autonomous not-for-profit incorporated organization. CRNAs also have continuing education requirements and recertification check-ins every two years thereafter, plus any additional requirements of the state in which they practice. The new recertification pathway focuses on: maintenance of certification, lifelong learning, and continued competence. The Continued Professional Certification (CPC) Program consists of 8-year periods, and each period comprises two four-year cycles.[52]

Under US law, Frank v. South,[53] Chalmers-Francis v. Nelson[54] and other court decisions established that anesthesia was the practice of nursing as well as medicine.[55] As such, the practice of anesthesia in the US may be delivered by either a nurse anesthetist or physician anesthesiologist. The decisions have not been challenged since the Dagmar Nelson case.[56] In addition to legal decisions, individual hospital and surgical facility policies also regulate the granting of anesthesia clinical privileges and are often based on contractual agreements with provider groups.

All challenges to the CRNA scope of practice occurred before 1940 and all were found in favor of the nursing profession, relying on the premise that the surgeon in charge of the operating room was the person practicing medicine. In the United States, nurse anesthetists practice under the state's nursing practice act (not medical practice acts), which outlines the scope of practice for anesthesia nursing.

Scope of practice

The degree of independence or supervision by a licensed provider (physician, dentist, or podiatrist) varies with state law.[57] Some states use the term collaboration to define a relationship where the supervising physician and the CRNA work together to provide the anesthetic. Other states require the consent or order of a physician or other qualified licensed provider to administer the anesthetic.[58]

The licensed CRNA is legally authorized to deliver care under the particular Nurse Practice Act of each state. Scope of CRNA practice is commonly further defined by the practice location's clinical privilege and credentialing process, anesthesia department policies, or practitioner agreements. Clinical privileges are based on the scope and complexity of the expected clinical practice, CRNA qualifications, and CRNA experience. This allows the CRNA to provide core services and activities under defined conditions with or without supervision.[59]

In 2001, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) published a rule in the Federal Register that allows a state to be exempt from Medicare's physician supervision requirement for nurse anesthetists after appropriate approval by the state governor.[60] To date, 20 states have opted out of the federal requirement, instituting their own individual requirements instead.[61]

References

  1. ^ Council on Accreditation of Nurse Anesthesia Educational Programs. "Requirements to Practice as a Nurse Anesthetist in the United States". www.coacrna.org.
  2. ^ Daughettry, Lindsay (2010). "Is There a Shortage of Anesthesia Providers in the United States?". Rand Health. Retrieved September 30, 2018.
  3. ^ "CRA Fact Sheet".
  4. ^ https://www.aana.com/membership/become-a-crna/crna-fact-sheethttps://www.aana.com/membership/become-a-crna/crna-fact-sheet
  5. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-08-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  6. ^ Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. "Standards Revisions Related to the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-08-03.
  7. ^ Gene Blumenreich. "A Surgeons Responsibility for CRNAs" (PDF). www.aana.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-08-03.
  8. ^ American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (2013). "Scope of Nurse Anesthesia Practice" (PDF). www.aana.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-08-03.
  9. ^ Gene Blumenreich. "Legal Briefs: Captain of the Ship Doctrine" (PDF). www.aana.com. Retrieved 2018-08-03.
  10. ^ Lyon, James (1896). Autobiography. Sketch of life and labors of Miss Catherine S. Lawrence, who in early life distinguished herself as a bitter opponent of slavery and intemperence, and in later life as a nurse in late war, and for other patriotic and philanthropic services. Albany, New York: J.B. Lyon.
  11. ^ a b American Association of Nurse Anaesthetists (2007). AANA History: Hand in Hand with Nurse Anesthesia. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://www.aana.com/75th/timeline1844.aspx Archived 2007-06-04 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Thatcher, V.S. (1953) History of Anesthesia, With Emphasis on the Nurse Specialist. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, p. 54.
  13. ^ Thatcher, V.S. (1953) History of Anesthesia, With Emphasis on the Nurse Specialist. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, p. 54-67.
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  15. ^ Clapesattle, H. (1969). The Doctors Mayo. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
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  19. ^ Magaw, Alice (1900). "Observations on 1092 cases of anesthesia from January 1, 1899 to January 1, 1900". St Paul Med J. 2: 306-311.
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  35. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-05-31. Retrieved 2016-05-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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  38. ^ a b American Association of Colleges of Nursing (2004). AACN Position Statement on the Practice Doctorate in Nursing October 2004. Retrieved May 23, 2007, from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/DNP/pdf/DNP.pdf Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
  39. ^ American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (2006). The Doctorate in Nursing Practice (DNP) Background, Current Status and Future Activities. Retrieved May 23, 2007 from http://www.aana.com/professionaldevelopment.aspx?ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetID=131&ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetType=4&ucNavMenu_TSMenuID=6&id=1742 Archived 2008-06-10 at the Wayback Machine
  40. ^ "Raising the Bar in CRNA Education: What the 2025 Deadline Means". www.staffcare.com. Retrieved 2020-10-25.
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  45. ^ Bankert, M. (1990). A Living Heritage. CRNA Forum. Vol. 6 No. 1, p. 13.
  46. ^ Bankert, M. (1989) Watchful Care; A History of America's Nurse Anesthetists. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, p. 107-123, 137-139.
  47. ^ American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (2000). "Pearl Harbor, the Korean Conflict, and COL Mildred Irene Clark." Retrieved December 28, 2009 from http://www.aana.com/resources.aspx?ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetID=164&ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetType=4&ucNavMenu_TSMenuID=6&id=1810 Archived 2011-05-12 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ^ Bankert, M. (1989) Watchful Care; A History of America's Nurse Anesthetists. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, p. 144-148.
  49. ^ Bankert, M. (1989) Watchful Care; A History of America's Nurse Anesthetists. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, p. 148.
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  51. ^ American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (2004). Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists Play Pivotal Role in U.S. Efforts to Combat Worldwide Terrorism. Retrieved May 23, 2007 from http://www.aana.com/pr011304.aspx Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
  52. ^ "Continued Certification (CPC) | NBCRNA". www.nbcrna.com. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
  53. ^ 175 Ky 416, 194 SW 375 (1917)
  54. ^ 6 Cal 2d 402 (1936)
  55. ^ "The Practice of Anesthesia (Position Statement)". American Association of Nurse Anesthetists. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
  56. ^ "The administration of anesthesia and the practice of medicine". AANA. 2006-02-01. Archived from the original on 2007-10-21. Retrieved 2007-02-10.
  57. ^ "Newsroom Homepage | CMS". www.cms.gov. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  58. ^ American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (2002). AANA Fact Sheet Final Supervision Rule -- Frequently Asked Questions, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS)Conditions of Participation for Hospitals, Ambulatory Surgical Centers (ASCs), and Critical Access Hospitals (CAHs): Anesthesia Services (Part A Payment), November 21. Retrieved May 23, 2007 from http://www.aana.com/finalsupervisionfaqs.aspx Archived 2007-10-06 at the Wayback Machine
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  60. ^ "Newsroom Homepage | CMS". www.cms.gov. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  61. ^ American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (2009). Fact Sheet Concerning State Opt-Outs And November 13, 2001 CMS Rule. Retrieved July 27, 2009 from http://www.aana.com/Advocacy.aspx?ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetID=49&ucNavMenu_TSMenuTargetType=4&ucNavMenu_TSMenuID=6&id=2573 Archived 2010-03-13 at the Wayback Machine

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