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The Samnites were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium in south-central Italy. They became involved in several wars with the Roman Republic until the 1st century BC.

An Oscan-speaking people, the Samnites probably originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. The Samnites formed a confederation, consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. They allied with Rome against the Gauls in 354 BC, but later became enemies of the Romans and were soon involved in a series of three wars (343–341 BC, 327–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) against the Romans. Despite an overwhelming victory over the Romans at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were eventually subjugated. Although severely weakened, the Samnites later helped Pyrrhus and some went over to Hannibal in their wars (280–275 BC and 218–201 BC) against Rome. They also fought from 91 BC in the Social War and later in the civil war (82 BC) as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC).^[1] They were eventually assimilated by the Romans, and ceased to exist as distinct people.^[2]

Etymology

At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.

Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria, he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms.^[3]

The population of Samnium were called Samnites by the Romans. Their own endonyms were Safinim for the country and Safineis for the people.^[4] Safinim means cult place of the Safin- people. The root word Safin- is much older than the word Safinim. Safin- appears of graves near Abruzzo dating back to the 5th century. As well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea. The meaning of the word is poorly understood. Safin- appears as a noun used to describe the Samnite kingdom of Samnium, but also as an adjective used in phrases like "the community of the Safin people" and "the leaders of the Safin people." It could also refer to cult sites or a sanctuary in Samnium. This, combined with linguistic data, led archaeologists to believe that the word Safin referred to all the people in the Italian Peninsula.^[5] But it could also just refer to the people in Pentria. The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War.^[6]

Safin comes from Safen which comes from the Indo-European root Saβeno or Sabh.^[7] This was the first time it was used to describe the Samnite people.^[8]^[9] It later became Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian.^[2] Eventually this root would come to be used in Saβnyom, the Oscan word for Samnium. The words Sabini and Saineis would also come from this root. One piece of evidence for this viewpoint is the god of the Sabines, Sabus. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin. The Latin names for the Samnites, Samnītēs and Sabellī also derived from the root word Saβnyom. The ī sound emerged due to vowel weakening. ΣαύνΙον, or Saunìtai, the Greek word for the Samnites, also coming from Saβnyom, likely dates back to the middle of the 5th century BCE, when the Samnites first encountered the Greeks.^[8] Some theories incorrectly suggest that this word, comes from the Greek word Saunion. The word Saunion means "javelin."^[10]

Safinim is also attested in one inscription and a coin legend. On a coin from the Social War a bull next to a warrior with a spear with the word Safinim engraved on it.^[11] According to Samnite legend, a group of Sabines were expelled from their homes and guided to the land where the Samnites would soon live by a bull. The Samnites would then proceed to sacrifice the bull to Mars. Later at Samnite religious sanctuaries, bulls would continue to be sacrificed to Mars.^[11]^[12]These sanctuaries became communal sites. Resulting in the word Safinim coming to refer to all Samnites in Oscan.^[13] Safinim may have also designated the part of Italy where most of the fighting in the Social Was was concentrated.^[14]

History

Origins and Early History

According to Strabo and coins made during the Social war, the Samnites were exiled from the Sabines. During a war between the Sabines and the Umbrians the Sabines decided to dedicate the spoils of war to the god Mars. These spoils included people. When the captured babies reached adulthood they were sent away as colonists. They were then guided by a bull to a new homeland. This homeland was currently inhabited by the Opici. The Samnites proceeded to sacrificed to bull to Mars. According to Strabo a group of Lucanians joined the Samnites.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] During the earlier parts of Samnite history they took over much of the region of Campania after the Etruscans left the region. The Samnites also expanded into former Greek territory one Greek hegemony in the region waned.^[20]

Samnite Wars

The Samnites first came into contact with the Romans after the Romans defeated the Volscians. Although the earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly thereafter, in 343 BCE, the Samnite Wars broke out. The First Samnite War was ignited when the city of Capua was offered to the Romans by the Capuans, while the Samnites were besieging the city. The Romans sent two armies to attack the Samnites. One army relieved Capua, one raided the Samnites. The first battle of the war was the Battle of Mount Gaurus. The Romans lost the battle, although they would win another battle at Sussela. During the war, according to the Samnites, the Romans would raid and plunder Samnite lands.^[21] By the end of the war the Samnites stopped their attacks on Rome and Capua, and the Romans did not continue their offensives into Samnium.^[21] The peace treaty ceded the Latin colony of Fregellae to the Samnites and Capua to the Romans.^[22] It also established an alliance between the Romans and the Samnites. In-between the Samnite Wars the Romans adopted the Manipular System.^[23] The Samnites would again attack Rome, during the Second Samnite War, winning the Battle of Caudine Forks in 321 BCE and the Battle of Lautulae in 315 BCE. The Samnites pushed as far as Ardea. In 312 BCE the Etruscans intervened on the side of the Samnites, resulting in fighting between the Romans and the Etruscans. After more campaigning in Apulia and Samnium the Second Samnite War came to an end in 304 BCE. The old treaty between the Romans and the Samnites was restored.. The third Samnite war broke out in 298 BCE, and it ended in 290 BCE. Resulting in the assimilation of the Samnites into Roman territory.^[24]

Later History

The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal to Rome. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War, after Romans refused to grant them Roman citizenship. The war lasted almost four years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla. A Samnite by the name Pontius Telesinus lead the Samnites against Sulla. Pontius Telesinus worked with Lucanian leader named Marcus Lamponius, and possibly a third man named Tiberius Clepitius.^[25] They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at the Colline Gates. This battle was close, however Sulla won. Pontius was killed shortly after the battle.^[25]^[26] During the battle Pontius went to his men and told them that the wolves who were the oppressors of Italy would always be there unless the forest they lived in was cut down.^[27] Pontius is also recorded having told his men:^[28]^[29]

"We had concluded perpetual friendship with the Romans, which you yourselves violated by giving aid to the Sidicini, our enemies. When peace was concluded again, you made war upon the Neapolitans, our neighbors. Nor did it escape us that these things were part of a plan of yours to seize the dominion of all Italy. In the first battles, where you gained the advantage on account of the unskilfulness of our generals, you showed us no moderation. Not content with devastating our country and occupying towns and villages not your own, you planted colonies in them. Moreover, when we twice sent embassies to you and made many concessions, you treated us disdainfully, and demanded that we should yield you the supremacy and obey you, as though we were not a nation to make terms with but a conquered race. Thereupon you decreed this irreconcilable, implacable war against your former friends, descendants of the Sabines whom you made your fellow-citizens. On account of your insatiable cupidity we ought not to make a treaty with you. But I, having regard for the divine wrath (which you despised), and mindful of our former relationship and friendship, will permit each one of you to pass under the yoke safe and sound with the clothes you stand in, if you swear to give up all of our lands and strongholds and withdraw your colonies from the same, and never wage war against the Samnites again."
— Pontius Telesinus, Appian, Samnite History

Many scholars debate the veracity of this speech. Some claim that it is propaganda made during the first century for the Social War.^[21]

Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. He ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world.^[30]^[31]^[32]

Economy

During the earliest parts of Samnite history they were a poor landlocked country with very few natural resources, resulting in an economy was pastoral in nature.^[33] They had no money and little trade. Agriculture was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. The Samnites sustained themselves off subsistence agriculture and animal husbrandy . Mixed farming, sheep farmning, and smallholdings were very common types of farming in ancient Samnium.^[20]^[34] Due to the mountainous terrain livestock was very important to the Samnite economy. The most common type of animal was sheep and cattle. However goats and pigs were also common.^[35] Transhumance was practiced to some extent by Samnite farmers.^[33] The Samnites produced some goods, such as cereals, olives, legumes, and vines.^[33] The general poverty of the Samnite civilization resulted in conflicts between the Samnites and the Romans and other powers.^[36] Warfare and raiding was an essential part of the Samnite economy.^[33] Later a period of urbanization occurred in Samnium. This changed the Samnite economy. Ceramic and textile manufacturing became more popular in Samnite society.^[35] A number of pottery workshops have been found in Bovianum, Saepinum, Venafrum, Larinum, and possibly Caudium.^[35] It is likely that wool and probably leather were harvested in significant quantities. As evidenced by the many loom weights found in the region.^[35] Extensive trade networks stretching across Campania, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia were established.^[35]

Politics

Samnite government resembled the tribes of the celts rather than the Greek or Etruscan city-states. In Oscan these tribes were called touto. The Samnite touto were each governed by an elected magistrate called a Meddix Tuticus. This Meddix Tuticus had supreme executive and judicial power. Some Oscan speaking states likely also had councils and assemblies similar to that of a Senate. The Samnites had an organization similar to that of the Latin League. This organization was primarily a military organization, designed to pursue the interests of the many Samnite groups. Leading men of each tribe, probably had to agree on a policy proposal, before it could become a law. This new law would then be enforced by a commander and chief.^[36] In Samnite society buildings dedicated to civil and military matters received noticeably less attention and lavish treatment than buildings dedicated to the same purpose in other societies.^[34] In ancient Samnium Sanctuaries were used for religious, politicial, and theatrical purposes in Samnite civilizations. These sanctuaries were the primary location where political and legal business was conducted.^[20]^[37]

Settlements

Most Samnite settlements were quite small, with most people having to work for a living. Most people lived in hamlets.^[20] The typical Samnite house was made of stone and it had tiled roofs.^[34] The Samnites were not without larger settlements. Two Samnite settlements include Saepinum and Caiatia.^[38]Excavations at Saepinum have revealed that the site began as a collection of buildings centered around a crossroad. The main road was a tratturo. The tratturo lead from summer pastures in the Apennines to the grazing areas in the lowlands for the winter. Most likely, urban planning was not used in Samnite cities. During the Samnite Wars large defenses became a common and integral feature of Samnite settlements. This indicates that Samnite political structures developed into small independent settlements called Pagi.^[20]

List of tribes

Notable Samnites

Gentes of Samnite origin

Leaders of the Samnites

Gaius Pontius ca. 320s BC
Gellius Egnatius ca. 296 BC

Social War leader

Gaius Papius Mutilus 90-89
Pontius Telesinus, 82 BC

Romans of Samnite origin

Gaius Cassius Longinus - assassin of Julius Caesar
Pontius Pilate - the 5th Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea from AD 26–36. He ordered the crucifixion of Jesus

Notes

^ "Samnite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
^ ^a ^b Edward Togo Salmon (1967). Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-06185-8.
^ Pokorny 1959, pp. 882–884 under se.
^ Salmon 1967, p. 28.
^ Evans, Jane DeRose (2013-03-29). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-55716-7.
^ Scopacasa, Rafael (2015-06-25). Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-102285-2.
^ Bakkum, Gabriël C. L. M. (2009). The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-5629-562-2.
^ ^a ^b Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004-06-17). Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-925773-7.
^ Salmon 1967, p. 29.
^ Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Guy (2017-11-20). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-1-5015-0014-5.
^ ^a ^b Rüpke, Jörg (2011-04-18). A Companion to Roman Religion. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3924-6.
^ Scopacasa, Rafael (2015-06-25). Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-102285-2.
^ Perego, Elisa; Scopacasa, Rafael (2016-11-30). Burial and Social Change in First Millennium BC Italy: Approaching Social Agents. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78570-187-0.
^ Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Guy (2017-11-20). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-1-5015-0014-5.
^ Rüpke, Jörg (2011-04-18). A Companion to Roman Religion. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3924-6.
^ Scopacasa, Rafael (2015-06-25). Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-102285-2.
^ Liddell, Henry George (1899). A History of Rome: From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire with Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. Harper & Brothers.
^ "Samnite | people | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2021-12-26.
^ "4". Geography (in Greek). Vol. 4. Alexandria. 7 BCE. p. 465. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Potter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06975-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Russo, Federico (2007). Kinship In Roman-Italian Relationships: Diverse Traditions, Perspectives And Interpretations In Vellius Paterculus And Other Roman And Greek Historical Writers.
^ Forsythe, Gary (2006-08-07). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2.
^ Esposito, Gabriele (2021-01-30). Armies of Ancient Italy 753-218 BC: From the Foundation of Rome to the Start of the Second Punic War. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-5188-1.
^ Harris, William Vernon (1985). War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327-70 B.C. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814866-1.
^ ^a ^b Dart, Dr Christopher J. (2014-12-28). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4724-1678-0.
^ Dart, Christopher J. (2016-02-24). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-01549-9.
^ Crawford, Michael Hewson (1993). The Roman Republic. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77927-3.
^ "Appian, Samnite History, Fragments". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
^ Dart, Christopher J. (2016-02-24). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-01549-9.
^ Strabo, Geography, Book V, Section 4.11.
^ Strabo, Geography, Book V, Section 4.11.
^ "Lacus Curtius, Vellius Paterculus, Book II, Chapters 1-28". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen; Gadd, Cyril John; Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Boardman, John; Lewis, David Malcolm; Walbank, Frank William; Astin, A. E.; Crook, John Anthony; Lintott, Andrew William (1970). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23446-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Dench, Emma (1995-11-02). From Barbarians to New Men : Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines: Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-159070-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Roselaar, Saskia T. (2012-05-07). Processes of Integration and Identity Formation in the Roman Republic. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-22911-2.
^ ^a ^b Forsythe, Gary (2006-08-07). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2.
^ Berry, Dr Joanne; Berry, Joanne; Laurence, Ray (2002-09-11). Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-77851-5.
^ "Lacus Curtius, Vellius Paterculus, Book II, Chapters 59-93". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

References

Salmon, Edward Togo. Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967.

External links

Library resources about
Samnites

Ross Cowan, The Samnite Pilum

[eb-1] "Samnite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[Salmon1967-2] Edward Togo Salmon (1967). Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-06185-8.

[3] Pokorny 1959, pp. 882–884 under se.

[4] Salmon 1967, p. 28.

[5] Evans, Jane DeRose (2013-03-29). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-55716-7.

[6] Scopacasa, Rafael (2015-06-25). Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-102285-2.

[7] Bakkum, Gabriël C. L. M. (2009). The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-5629-562-2.

[:0-8] Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004-06-17). Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-925773-7.

[9] Salmon 1967, p. 29.

[10] Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Guy (2017-11-20). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-1-5015-0014-5.

[:1-11] Rüpke, Jörg (2011-04-18). A Companion to Roman Religion. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3924-6.

[12] Scopacasa, Rafael (2015-06-25). Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-102285-2.

[13] Perego, Elisa; Scopacasa, Rafael (2016-11-30). Burial and Social Change in First Millennium BC Italy: Approaching Social Agents. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78570-187-0.

[14] Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Guy (2017-11-20). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-1-5015-0014-5.

[:12-15] Rüpke, Jörg (2011-04-18). A Companion to Roman Religion. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3924-6.

[16] Scopacasa, Rafael (2015-06-25). Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-102285-2.

[17] Liddell, Henry George (1899). A History of Rome: From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire with Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. Harper & Brothers.

[18] "Samnite | people | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2021-12-26.

[19] "4". Geography (in Greek). Vol. 4. Alexandria. 7 BCE. p. 465. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)

[:3-20] Potter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06975-6.

[:5-21] Russo, Federico (2007). Kinship In Roman-Italian Relationships: Diverse Traditions, Perspectives And Interpretations In Vellius Paterculus And Other Roman And Greek Historical Writers.

[22] Forsythe, Gary (2006-08-07). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2.

[23] Esposito, Gabriele (2021-01-30). Armies of Ancient Italy 753-218 BC: From the Foundation of Rome to the Start of the Second Punic War. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-5188-1.

[24] Harris, William Vernon (1985). War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327-70 B.C. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814866-1.

[:6-25] Dart, Dr Christopher J. (2014-12-28). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4724-1678-0.

[26] Dart, Christopher J. (2016-02-24). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-01549-9.

[27] Crawford, Michael Hewson (1993). The Roman Republic. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77927-3.

[28] "Appian, Samnite History, Fragments". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30.

[29] Dart, Christopher J. (2016-02-24). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-01549-9.

[strabo2-30] Strabo, Geography, Book V, Section 4.11.

[strabo-31] Strabo, Geography, Book V, Section 4.11.

[32] "Lacus Curtius, Vellius Paterculus, Book II, Chapters 1-28". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[:7-33] Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen; Gadd, Cyril John; Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Boardman, John; Lewis, David Malcolm; Walbank, Frank William; Astin, A. E.; Crook, John Anthony; Lintott, Andrew William (1970). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23446-7.

[:4-34] Dench, Emma (1995-11-02). From Barbarians to New Men : Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines: Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-159070-2.

[:8-35] Roselaar, Saskia T. (2012-05-07). Processes of Integration and Identity Formation in the Roman Republic. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-22911-2.

[:2-36] Forsythe, Gary (2006-08-07). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2.

[37] Berry, Dr Joanne; Berry, Joanne; Laurence, Ray (2002-09-11). Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-77851-5.

[38] "Lacus Curtius, Vellius Paterculus, Book II, Chapters 59-93". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

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 === Origins and Early History ===
-According to Strabo and coins made during the Social war, the Samnites were exiled from the Sabines. During a war between the Sabines and the Umbrians the Sabines decided to dedicate the [[Looting|spoils of war]] to the god Mars. These spoils included people. When the captured babies reached adulthood they were sent away as colonists. They were then guided by a bull to a new homeland. This homeland was currently inhabited by the [[Opici]]. The Samnites proceeded to sacrificed to bull to Mars. According to Strabo a group of [[Lucanians]] joined the Samnites.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Rüpke|first=Jörg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn0V41Z4iBIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA46&dq=Safinim&hl=en|title=A Companion to Roman Religion|date=2011-04-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3924-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Scopacasa|first=Rafael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqw7CQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA38&dq=Safinim&hl=en|title=Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology|date=2015-06-25|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-102285-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Liddell|first=Henry George|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsw_AAAAYAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA178&dq=Samnites+Origin&hl=en|title=A History of Rome: From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire with Chapters on the History of Literature and Art|date=1899|publisher=Harper & Brothers|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Samnite {{!}} people {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samnite-people|access-date=2021-12-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Strabo|title=Geography|year=7 BCE|volume=4|location=Alexandria|pages=465|language=Greek|chapter=4}}</ref> During the earlier parts of Samnite history they took over much of the region of [[Campania]] after the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] left the region. The Samnites also expanded into former [[Greek colonisation|Greek]] territory one Greek [[hegemony]] in the region waned.<ref name=":3" />
+According to Strabo and coins made during the Social war, the Samnites were exiled from the Sabines. During a war between the Sabines and the Umbrians the Sabines decided to dedicate the [[Looting|spoils of war]] to the god Mars. These spoils included people. When the captured babies reached adulthood they were sent away as colonists. They were then guided by a bull to a new homeland. This homeland was currently inhabited by the [[Opici]]. The Samnites proceeded to sacrificed to bull to Mars. According to Strabo a group of [[Lucanians]] joined the Samnites.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Rüpke|first=Jörg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn0V41Z4iBIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA46&dq=Safinim&hl=en|title=A Companion to Roman Religion|date=2011-04-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3924-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Scopacasa|first=Rafael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqw7CQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA38&dq=Safinim&hl=en|title=Ancient Samnium: Settlement, Culture, and Identity between History and Archaeology|date=2015-06-25|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-102285-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Liddell|first=Henry George|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsw_AAAAYAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA178&dq=Samnites+Origin&hl=en|title=A History of Rome: From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire with Chapters on the History of Literature and Art|date=1899|publisher=Harper & Brothers|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Samnite {{!}} people {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samnite-people|access-date=2021-12-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Strabo|title=Geography|year=7 BCE|volume=4|location=Alexandria|pages=465|language=Greek|chapter=4}}</ref> During the earlier parts of Samnite history they took over much of the region of [[Campania]] after the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] left the region. The Samnites also expanded into former [[Greek colonisation|Greek]] territory one Greek [[hegemony]] in the region waned.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Potter|first=Timothy W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLyYAnf9EPcC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA34&dq=Samnite+Culture&hl=en|title=Roman Italy|date=1990|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06975-6|language=en}}</ref>
 === Samnite Wars ===
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 == Economy ==
-Samnium was a poor [[Landlocked country|landlocked]] country with very few [[Natural resource|natural resources]], resulting in an economy was [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] in nature.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA353&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Gadd|first2=Cyril John|last3=Hammond|first3=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last4=Boardman|first4=John|last5=Lewis|first5=David Malcolm|last6=Walbank|first6=Frank William|last7=Astin|first7=A. E.|last8=Crook|first8=John Anthony|last9=Lintott|first9=Andrew William|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7|language=en}}</ref> They had no [[money]] and little [[trade]]. Although they did produce many goods. Such as [[Cereal|cereals]], [[Olive|olives]], [[Legume|legumes]], and [[Vine|vines]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA353&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Gadd|first2=Cyril John|last3=Hammond|first3=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last4=Boardman|first4=John|last5=Lewis|first5=David Malcolm|last6=Walbank|first6=Frank William|last7=Astin|first7=A. E.|last8=Crook|first8=John Anthony|last9=Lintott|first9=Andrew William|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7|language=en}}</ref> [[Ceramic]] and [[textile manufacturing]] was also common in Samnite society.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Roselaar|first=Saskia T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMXeTELDkQoC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA181&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=Processes of Integration and Identity Formation in the Roman Republic|date=2012-05-07|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-22911-2|language=en}}</ref> A number of pottery workshops have been found in [[Bojano|Bovianum]], Saepinum, [[Venafrum]], [[Larino|Larinum]], and possibly [[Caudium]].<ref name=":8" /> It is likely that [[wool]] and probably [[leather]] were harvested in significant quantities. As evidenced by the many [[Warp-weighted loom|loom weights]] found in the region.<ref name=":8" /> The Samnites sustained themselves off [[subsistence agriculture]] and [[Animal husbandry|animal husbrandy]][[Mixed farming|. Mixed farming]], [[Sheep farming|sheep farmning]], and [[Smallholding|smallholdings]] were very common types of farming in ancient Samnium.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Potter|first=Timothy W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLyYAnf9EPcC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA34&dq=Samnite+Culture&hl=en|title=Roman Italy|date=1990|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06975-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Dench|first=Emma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJNeh81j7ZYC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA5&dq=Samnite+Culture&hl=en|title=From Barbarians to New Men : Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines: Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines|date=1995-11-02|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159070-2|language=en}}</ref> Due to the mountainous terrain [[livestock]] was very important to the Samnite economy. The most common type of animal was [[sheep]] and [[cattle]]. However [[Goat|goats]] and [[Pig|pigs]] were also common.<ref name=":8" /> [[Transhumance]] was practiced to some extend by Samnite farmers.<ref name=":7" /> The general poverty of the Samnite civilization resulted in conflicts between the Samnites and the Romans and other powers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Forsythe|first=Gary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEfvR1Qcd0gC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=First+Samnite+War&hl=en|title=A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War|date=2006-08-07|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24991-2|language=en}}</ref> Warfare and [[Raid (military)|raiding]] was an essential part of the Samnite economy.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA353&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Gadd|first2=Cyril John|last3=Hammond|first3=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last4=Boardman|first4=John|last5=Lewis|first5=David Malcolm|last6=Walbank|first6=Frank William|last7=Astin|first7=A. E.|last8=Crook|first8=John Anthony|last9=Lintott|first9=Andrew William|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7|language=en}}</ref>
+During the earliest parts of Samnite history they were a poor [[Landlocked country|landlocked]] country with very few [[Natural resource|natural resources]], resulting in an economy was [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] in nature.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA353&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Gadd|first2=Cyril John|last3=Hammond|first3=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last4=Boardman|first4=John|last5=Lewis|first5=David Malcolm|last6=Walbank|first6=Frank William|last7=Astin|first7=A. E.|last8=Crook|first8=John Anthony|last9=Lintott|first9=Andrew William|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7|language=en}}</ref> They had no [[money]] and little [[trade]]. [[Agriculture]] was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. The Samnites sustained themselves off [[subsistence agriculture]] and [[Animal husbandry|animal husbrandy]][[Mixed farming|. Mixed farming]], [[Sheep farming|sheep farmning]], and [[Smallholding|smallholdings]] were very common types of farming in ancient Samnium.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Dench|first=Emma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJNeh81j7ZYC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA5&dq=Samnite+Culture&hl=en|title=From Barbarians to New Men : Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines: Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples from the Central Apennines|date=1995-11-02|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159070-2|language=en}}</ref> Due to the mountainous terrain [[livestock]] was very important to the Samnite economy. The most common type of animal was [[sheep]] and [[cattle]]. However [[Goat|goats]] and [[Pig|pigs]] were also common.<ref name=":8" /> [[Transhumance]] was practiced to some extent by Samnite farmers.<ref name=":7" /> The Samnites produced some goods, such as [[Cereal|cereals]], [[Olive|olives]], [[Legume|legumes]], and [[Vine|vines]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA353&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Gadd|first2=Cyril John|last3=Hammond|first3=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last4=Boardman|first4=John|last5=Lewis|first5=David Malcolm|last6=Walbank|first6=Frank William|last7=Astin|first7=A. E.|last8=Crook|first8=John Anthony|last9=Lintott|first9=Andrew William|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7|language=en}}</ref> The general poverty of the Samnite civilization resulted in conflicts between the Samnites and the Romans and other powers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Forsythe|first=Gary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEfvR1Qcd0gC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=First+Samnite+War&hl=en|title=A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War|date=2006-08-07|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24991-2|language=en}}</ref> Warfare and [[Raid (military)|raiding]] was an essential part of the Samnite economy.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA353&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Gadd|first2=Cyril John|last3=Hammond|first3=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|last4=Boardman|first4=John|last5=Lewis|first5=David Malcolm|last6=Walbank|first6=Frank William|last7=Astin|first7=A. E.|last8=Crook|first8=John Anthony|last9=Lintott|first9=Andrew William|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7|language=en}}</ref> Later a period of [[urbanization]] occurred in Samnium. This changed the Samnite economy. [[Ceramic]] and [[textile manufacturing]] became more popular in Samnite society.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Roselaar|first=Saskia T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMXeTELDkQoC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA181&dq=Samnite+Economy&hl=en|title=Processes of Integration and Identity Formation in the Roman Republic|date=2012-05-07|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-22911-2|language=en}}</ref> A number of pottery workshops have been found in [[Bojano|Bovianum]], Saepinum, [[Venafrum]], [[Larino|Larinum]], and possibly [[Caudium]].<ref name=":8" /> It is likely that [[wool]] and probably [[leather]] were harvested in significant quantities. As evidenced by the many [[Warp-weighted loom|loom weights]] found in the region.<ref name=":8" />  Extensive trade networks stretching across [[Campania]], [[Latium]], [[Apulia]], and [[Magna Graecia]] were established.<ref name=":8" />
 == Politics ==