View source for Pearl millet

{{Short description|Species of cultivated grass}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
|name=Pearl millet
|image=Grain millet, early grain fill, Tifton, 7-3-02.jpg
|image_caption=Pearl millet hybrid for grain
|genus=Cenchrus
|species=americanus
|authority=([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) Morrone
|synonyms_ref=<ref>{{cite web |title=''Cenchrus americanus'' (L.) Morrone|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77105978-1 |website=[[Plants of the World Online]]|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=15 November 2020}}</ref>
|synonyms={{Collapsible list|{{Species list
|Alopecurus typhoides |Burm.f.
|Andropogon racemosus |(Forssk.) Poir. ex Steud.
|Cenchrus paniceus |B.Heyne ex Wall.
|Cenchrus pycnostachyus |Steud.
|Cenchrus spicatus |(L.) Cav.
|Chaetochloa glauca |(L.) Scribn.
|Chaetochloa lutescens |Stuntz
|Chamaeraphis glauca |(L.) Kuntze
|Holcus paniciformis |Roxb. ex Hook.f.
|Holcus racemosus |Forssk.
|Holcus spicatus |L.
|Ixophorus glaucus |(L.) Nash
|Panicum alopecuroides |J.Koenig ex Trin.
|Panicum americanum |L.
|Panicum coeruleum |Mill.
|Panicum compressum |Balb. ex Steud.
|Panicum glaucum |L.
|Panicum holcoides |Trin.
|Panicum indicum |Mill.
|Panicum involucratum |Roxb.
|Panicum spicatum |(L.) Roxb.
|Penicillaria arabica |A.Braun
|Penicillaria deflexa |Andersson ex A.Braun
|Penicillaria elongata |Schrad. ex Schltdl.
|Penicillaria involucrata |(Roxb.) Schult.
|Penicillaria nigritarum |Schltdl.
|Penicillaria plukenetii |Link
|Penicillaria roxburghii |A.Braun
|Penicillaria solitaria |Stokes
|Penicillaria spicata |(L.) Willd.
|Pennisetum albicauda |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum americanum convar. spicatum |(L.) Tzvelev
|Pennisetum americanum convar. typhoides |Tzvelev
|Pennisetum ancylochaete |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum aureum |Link
|Pennisetum cereale |Trin.
|Pennisetum cinereum |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum echinurus |(K.Schum.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum gambiense |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum gibbosum |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum giganteum |Ten. ex Steud.
|Pennisetum glaucum |(L.) R.Br.
|Pennisetum leonis |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum maiwa |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum malacochaete |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum megastachyum |Steud.
|Pennisetum nigritarum |(Schltdl.) T.Durand & Schinz
|Pennisetum plukenetii |(Link) T.Durand & Schinz
|Pennisetum pycnostachyum |Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
|Pennisetum spicatum |(L.) Körn.
|Phleum africanum |Lour.
|Setaria glauca |(L.) P.Beauv.
|Setaria rufa |Chevall.
|Setaria sericea |(Aiton) P.Beauv.
|Setariopsis glauca |(L.) Samp.
}}}}
}}

'''Pearl millet''' ('''''Cenchrus americanus''''', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum  glaucum'') is the most widely grown type of [[millet]]. It has been grown in [[Africa]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]] since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of [[domestication]], for the crop is in the [[Sahel]] zone of [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winchell |first1=Frank |last2=Brass |first2=Michael |last3=Manzo |first3=Andrea |last4=Beldados |first4=Alemseged |last5=Perna |first5=Valentina |last6=Murphy |first6=Charlene |last7=Stevens |first7=Chris |last8=Fuller |first8=Dorian Q. |date=2018-12-01 |title=On the Origins and Dissemination of Domesticated Sorghum and Pearl Millet across Africa and into India: a View from the Butana Group of the Far Eastern Sahel |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-018-9314-2 |journal=African Archaeological Review |language=en |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=483–505 |doi=10.1007/s10437-018-9314-2 |issn=1572-9842 |pmc=6394749 |pmid=30880862}}</ref> Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern [[Mali]] between 2500 and 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Manning K, Pelling R, Higham T, Schwenniger JL, Fuller DQ |display-authors=3 |year=2011 |title=4500-year-old domesticated pearl millet (''Pennisetum glaucum'') from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternative cereal domestication pathway |journal=[[Journal of Archaeological Science]]|volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=312–322 |issn=0305-4403 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007|bibcode=2011JArSc..38..312M }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Fuller, D.Q. |year=2003 |chapter=African crops in prehistoric South Asia: a critical review |veditors=Neumann K, Butler A, Kahlheber S |title=Food, Fuel and Fields: Progress in Africa Archaeobotany |series=Africa Praehistorica|volume=15|location=Cologne|publisher=Heinrich-Barth-Institut|pages=239–271 |isbn=3-927688-20-7}}</ref> 2023 was the {{ Visible anchor |International Year of Millets}}, declared by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 2021.<ref name = "Year" >{{ Cite web |language=en|year=2022|title=International Year of Millets 2023|publisher=United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization|url=https://www.fao.org/millets-2023/en}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Pennisetum glaucum MHNT.BOT.2013.22.56.jpg|thumb|Seed heads|alt=Three fruiting heads]]
Pearl millet has [[ovoid]] grains of {{ Convert |3 – 4|mm|frac=32}} length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including [[sorghum]]). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g.

The height of the plant ranges from {{Convert|0.5 – 4|m}}.<ref name=fao>{{cite web|title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO)|year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm|access-date=2016-11-04|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001231759/http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818e/T0818E00.HTM|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Other languages==
Also known as 'Bajra' in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]], Kodo in Nepali language,'Sajje' in [[Kannada]], 'Kambu' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], 'Sajjalu' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]], 'Bajeer' in [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]], 'Bajri' in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and 'Maiwa' in [[Hausa language|Hausa]], 'Mexoeira' in [[Mozambique]],{{ CN | date=January 2023}} 'Baajri' in [[Marathi Language|Marathi]], 'Za' in the [[Dagbani language]] of Ghana, 'Zuk' in [[Tyap language|Tyap]] of Nigeria, 'Mawele' in [[Swahili language|Swahili]], 'Mwere' in [[Meru language]] of Kenya, 'Mahangu' in [[Kwanyama dialect|Kwanyama]] of Namibia. Sona in Fur Language of Darfur, Sudan, kasab " قصب" in arabic libyan dialect, and draa "درع" in arabic Tunisian dialect

==Cultivation==
Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by [[drought]], low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other [[cereal]] crops, such as [[maize]] or [[wheat]], would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations. The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China.

Today, pearl millet is grown on over {{ Convert |260,000|km2}} of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/millet.html |title=Millet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711031948/http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/millet.html |archive-date=2007-07-11 |publisher=Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research}}</ref> 

World production of millets has been stable during the 1980s. According to FAO, {{ Convert |39.4|e6ha|abbr=off}} of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only {{ Convert |704|kg/ha}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1989 |title=FAO production yearbook, 1988, v. 42 |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?q=FAO+production+yearbook%2C+1988%2C+v.+42 |journal=FAO Statistics Series |language=English |issn=0071-7118}}</ref>

== Structure and physical properties ==
[[File:Pearl millet grain.jpg|frameless|right|alt=Grains]]
Pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McDonough |first1=C. |last2=Rooney |first2=L. |date=1989-01-01 |title=Structural Characteristics of ''Pennisetum Americanum'' (Pearl Millet) Using Scanning Electron and Fluorescence Microscopy |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/foodmicrostructure/vol8/iss1/16 |journal=[[Food Structure]] |volume=8 |issue=1}}</ref> Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal, [[lanceolate]], globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences.

== Composition ==
The composition of variety ''Changara'' of pearl millet can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is a naked [[caryopsis]].{{cn|date=September 2023}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Proximate analysis of pearl millet
!Millet type
!Protein
!Fat 
!Ash
!Total DF
|-
|Pearl millet
|12.8
|6.0
|1.2
|7.1
|}
Values are expressed on a dry matter basis.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

==Culinary use==
[[File:Bajhar ji maani.jpg|thumb|right|[[Roti]], [[Sindh]]]]
Pearl millet is commonly used to make ''[[bhakri]]'' flatbread. It is also boiled to make a [[Tamils|Tamil]] porridge called ''kamban choru'' or ''kamban koozh''.

In [[Rajasthani cuisine]] {{lang|raj|bajre ki khatti rabdi|italic=yes}} is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and [[yogurt]]. It is usually made in summers to be served along with meals.

[[Flatbread]]s made of pearl millet flour, known as {{lang|raj|bajhar ji [[Roti|maani]]|italic=yes}} or {{lang|raj|bajre ki roti|italic=yes}} (बाजरे की रोटी) in [[Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Haryana]], bajrichi bhakri (बाजरीची भाकरी) in [[Maharashtra]] and bajra no rotlo (બાજરા નો રોટલો) in [[Gujarat]], India, are served with various types of [[kadhi]] and [[Curry|bhaaji]] in meals. Bajhar ji maani prepared in Tharparkar, Sindh is served with various types of kadhi and bhaaji.

In Namibia, pearl millet flour is used to make [[Oshifima]], a staple food in northern part of Namibia. 

==Around the world==
===India===
[[India]] is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/180/180-30-76304-1-10-20161130.pdf|title=The origin and dispersal of millet cultivation in India|last=Singh|first=Purushottam|date=1996|access-date=October 9, 2017}}</ref> It is currently unknown how it made its way to India,<ref name=":0" /> but it likely arrived originally from across Africa, and via the Red Sea during Indus Valley Trade networks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haaland |first=Randi |date=2012-06-20 |title=Crops and Culture: Dispersal of African Millets to the Indian Subcontinent and its Cultural Consequences |url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/DSAJ/article/view/6354 |journal=Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology |volume=5 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.3126/dsaj.v5i0.6354 |issn=1994-2672|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winchell |first1=Frank |last2=Brass |first2=Michael |last3=Manzo |first3=Andrea |last4=Beldados |first4=Alemseged |last5=Perna |first5=Valentina |last6=Murphy |first6=Charlene |last7=Stevens |first7=Chris |last8=Fuller |first8=Dorian Q. |date=2018-12-01 |title=On the Origins and Dissemination of Domesticated Sorghum and Pearl Millet across Africa and into India: a View from the Butana Group of the Far Eastern Sahel |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-018-9314-2 |journal=African Archaeological Review |language=en |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=483–505 |doi=10.1007/s10437-018-9314-2 |issn=1572-9842 |pmc=6394749 |pmid=30880862}}</ref> Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1.

Sajje is the local name of the pearl millet in [[Karnataka]] and is mostly grown in the semiarid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'sajje rotti' and is eaten with yennegai (stuffed [[brinjal]]) and [[yogurt]].

''Kambu'' is the Tamil name of pearl millet and is a common food across the [[Indian state]] of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a [[gruel]] and consumed along with [[buttermilk]] or consumed as [[Dosa (food)|dosa]] or [[Idli|idly]].

Pearl millet is called ''bajra'' in [[Northern India]]n states. There was a time when pearl millets along with [[finger millet]]s and [[sorghum]] were the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to a mere cattle fodder crop after the [[Green Revolution]] in the 1960s.

===Africa===
The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost{{ CN |date=January 2023}} crop.

====Sahel====
Pearl millet is an important food across the [[Sahel]] region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with [[sorghum]]) in a large region of northern [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Mali]] and [[Burkina Faso]]. In Nigeria it is usually grown as an [[intercrop]] with sorghum and [[cowpea]], the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in [[Borno state]] and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.

====Namibia====
In [[Namibia]], pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the [[staple food]]. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as [[maize]]. The regions in which this crop is produced are: Zambezi, Kavango East, Kavango West, Ohangwena, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, and; in parts of the Otjozondjupa region, in the Tsumkwe area.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahangu {{!}} Agronomic Services|url=https://www.nab.com.na/agronomy/mahangu/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Namibian Agronomic Board (NAB)|language=en-US}}</ref>

Mahangu is usually made into a [[porridge]] called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or [[fermentation (food)|ferment]]ed to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu".

Traditionally, the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of [[termite]] mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holidaytravel.com.na/index.php?fArticleId=222 |title=Venture Publications - Namibia Holiday & Travel |access-date=2006-05-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130221062826/http://www.holidaytravel.com.na/index.php?fArticleId=222 |archive-date=2013-02-21 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2007}} After pounding, [[winnowing]] may be used to remove the [[chaff]].

Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by [[Namib Mills]]. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using [[food extrusion]] and other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal [[die (manufacturing)|die]]. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including [[puffed grain]]s and [[porridge]], pasta shapes, and "rice".<ref>{{cite web|title=Enhancing food security in Namibia through value-added products|url=http://www.csir.co.za/biochemtek/newsletter/mar/food_security.html|publisher=Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|access-date=4 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206060459/http://www.csir.co.za/biochemtek/newsletter/mar/food_security.html|archive-date=6 December 2005|date=March 2003}}</ref> Pearl millet is also a vital feedstock for cattle, goats and chickens which can also be explored as an enterprise.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the Namibian Agronomic Board (NAB) |url=https://www.nab.com.na/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=NAB |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Research and development==
Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably.<ref>{{cite book |author=Board on Science and Technology for International Development|author2=Office of International Affairs |author3=National Research Council (United States) |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |access-date=2007-11-07 |volume=1 |date=1996-02-14 |publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |chapter=Pearl Millet: Subsistence Types |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=93 |page=108 }}</ref>

To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron-[[Biofortification|biofortified]] pearl millets which is bred conventionally without [[genetic modification]] to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group.<ref>{{cite news|last=Munyaradzi|first=Makoni|title=Biofortified pearl millet 'can combat iron deficiency'|url=http://www.scidev.net/sub-saharan-africa/nutrition/news/biofortified-pearl-millet-can-combat-iron-deficiency.html|access-date=29 August 2013|newspaper=SciDev Net|date=29 August 2013}}</ref>

Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes (including 31 wild genotypes) have been sequenced, identifying the genetic diversity of this staple crop and aiding breeding to select for particular characteristics. A reference genotype of pearl millet ({{Vanchor|Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5}}) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax [[biosynthesis]], which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet.<ref>{{cite book | year=2020 | page = 270 | publication-place=Cham, Switzerland | publisher=Springer International Publishing | last=Kole | first=Chittaranjan | editor-first1 = Chittaranjan | editor-last1 = Kole | title=Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Cereal Crops | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-93381-8| isbn = 978-3-319-93380-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=K Varshney|first1=Rajeev|last2=Shi|first2=Chengcheng|last3=Thudi|first3=Mahendar|last4=Cedric|first4=Mariac|last5=Wallace|first5=Jason|last6=Qi|first6=Peng|last7=Zhang|first7=He|last8=Zhao|first8=Yusheng|last9=Wang|first9=Xiyin|display-authors=3|date=2018-04-05|title=Erratum: Pearl millet genome sequence provides a resource to improve agronomic traits in arid environments|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324250226|journal=[[Nature Biotechnology]]|volume=36|issue=4|pages=368|doi=10.1038/nbt0418-368d|s2cid=4608024|doi-access=free}}
</ref> The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is evaluating crop wild relatives and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement.<ref>{{Cite journal|language=en|date=2021|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|display-authors=3 |last1=Sharma|first1=Shiv|issue=1ali|last2=Sharma|first2=Rajan|last3=Govindaraj|first3=Mahalingam|last4=Mahala|first4=Rajendra Singh|last5=Satyavathi|first5=C. Tara|last6=Srivastava|first6=Rakesh K.|last7=Gumma|first7=Murali Krishna|last8=Kilian|first8=Benjamin|volume=61|pages=177–200|title=Harnessing wild relatives of pearl millet for germplasm enhancement: Challenges and opportunities|s2cid=224875047|doi=10.1002/csc2.20343|journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|issn=1435-0653|id=[[Crop Science Society of America]] (CSSA)|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A 2015 study provided a [[genetic map]].<ref name="Construction">{{Cite journal|issue=2|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|volume=32|pages=221–240|first2=Yukihiro|first1=Hiroaki|last2=Sugimoto|last1=Samejima|journal=Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment|issn=1310-2818|doi=10.1080/13102818.2017.1420427|title=Recent research progress in combatting root parasitic weeds|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|issue=1|year=2015|first7=F.|first6=B.|first5=Y.|first4=C.|first3=M.|first2=B.|first1=K.|volume=35|last7=Belzile|last6=Haussmann|last5=Vigouroux|last4=Hash|last3=Jean|last2=Kountche|last1=Moumouni|journal=Molecular Breeding|issn=1380-3743|doi=10.1007/s11032-015-0212-x|id=National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement at Huazhong Agricultural University|title=Construction of a genetic map for pearl millet, ''Pennisetum glaucum'' (L.) R. Br., using a genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach|url=http://oar.icrisat.org/9112/1/MolBreeding_35_5_2015.pdf }}</ref>

==Pests==
{{See also|List of pearl millet diseases}}
Insect pests include ''[[Anoecia corni]]'', ''[[Anoecia cornicola|An. cornicola]]'', ''Anoecia fulviabdominalis'', ''[[Anoecia vagans|An. vagans]]'', ''[[Aphis gossypii]]'', ''[[Forda hirsuta]]'', ''[[Forda orientalis|F. orientalis]]'', ''[[Geoica utricularia]]'', ''[[Hysteroneura setariae]]'', ''[[Melanaphis sacchari]]'', ''[[Protaphis middletonii]]'', ''[[Rhopalosiphum maidis]]'', ''[[Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale|R. rufiabdominale]]'', ''[[Schizaphis graminum]]'', ''[[Sipha elegans]]'', ''[[Sipha maydis]]'', ''[[Sitobion avenae]]'', ''[[Sitobion leelamaniae|Sit. leelamaniae]]'', ''[[Sitobion pauliani|Sit. pauliani]]'', ''Tetraneura africana'', ''Tetraneura basui'', ''Tetraneura fusiformis'', and ''[[Tetraneura yezoensis|T. yezoensis]]''.<ref name="Kalaisekar">{{ Cite book|year=2017|publication-place=[[London]], United Kingdom [[San Diego, CA]], USA|publisher=Academic Press|first4=J.|first3=V.|first2=P.|first1=A.|last4=Patil|pages=xiii+190|last3=Bhagwat|last2=Padmaja|last1=Kalaisekar|isbn=978-0-12-804285-4|oclc=967265246|title=Insect Pests of Millets: Systematics, Bionomics, and Management}}</ref>{{ RP |page=93}}

===Africa===
The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the orders [[Coleoptera]], [[Lepidoptera]], [[Diptera]], and [[Hemiptera]], as well as [[Orthoptera]] adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the [[Sahel]].<ref>S. Krall, O. Youm, and S. A. Kogo. ''[http://ispi-lit.cirad.fr/text/Krall95a.htm Panicle insect pest damage and yield loss in pearl millet]''.</ref><ref>Jago, N. D. 1993. ''Millet pests of the Sahel: biology, monitoring and control''. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. 66 pp. {{ISBN|0-85954-349-8}}.</ref><ref>Matthews, M. and N. D. Jago. 1993. ''Millet pests of the Sahel: an identification guide'', Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. (80 p.) {{ISBN|0-85954-331-5}}.</ref> The following pest species are reported for northern Mali.<ref name=insects>{{cite web| last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Heath |title=Guide to insects, arthropods, and molluscs of northern Dogon country |url=https://dogonlanguages.org/sources/insectarthropodmolluscnotesmalijh|year=2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=Reddy|last1=Gahukar|first2=Gadi V. P.|first1=Ruparao T.|title=Management of Economically Important Insect Pests of Millet|journal=Journal of Integrated Pest Management |year=2019 |volume=10 |issue=1:28 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1093/jipm/pmz026|doi-access=free}}</ref>

*''[[Coniesta ignefusalis]]'' (pearl millet stem-borer; Lepidoptera, [[Crambidae]]) attacks pearl millet, and also sorghum and maize, especially in the Sahel. It is the main pearl millet pest in [[Senegal]].
*''[[Heliocheilus albipunctella]]'' (pearl millet head-miner; Lepidoptera, [[Noctuidae]]) attacks pearl millet. The larvae bore in a spiral path, destroying florets or grain.
*''[[Geromyia penniseti]]'' (millet grain midge): The larvae eat the developing grain and form white pupal cases attached to the tips of spikelets. Reported losses in Senegal are as high as 90 percent.
*''[[Pachnoda interrupta]]'' (millet beetle)
*''[[Psalydolytta fusca]]'' and ''[[Psalydolytta vestita|Ps. vestita]]'' (pearl millet blister beetle; Coleoptera, [[Meloidae]]) attack pearl millet. They are major millet pests in Mali.
*''[[Rhinyptia infuscata]]'' (Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae, [[Anomalini]]) is a nocturnal beetle, recorded as a locally important pest on millet flowers in [[Niger]]. Farmers in Niger often fight the species using fires set at night. It is also reported as sorghum pest in [[Senegal]], and as a pest on maize, where the larvae attack the roots.
*''[[Sesamia calamistis]]'' (pink stem borer), especially in lowland forests. This species and the sugarcane borer (''[[Eldana saccharina]]'') are the primary pests of the pearl millet in [[Ivory Coast]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}
*[[gall midge]]s (Diptera, [[Cecidomyiidae]]): millet grain midge (''[[Geromyia penniseti]]''), sorghum midge (''[[Contarinia sorghicola]]''), and African rice gall midge (''[[Orseolia oryzivora]]'').
*''Dysdercus volkeri'' (cotton-stainer; Hemiptera, [[Pyrrhocoridae]]) attacks flowers.

Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the [[Dogon country]] of Mali are ''[[Oedaleus senegalensis]]'', ''[[Kraussaria angulifera]]'', ''[[Cataloipus cymbiferus]]'', and ''[[Diabolocatantops axillaris]]''.<ref name=insects/>

In northern Ghana, ''[[Poophilus costalis]]'' (spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well as ''Dysdercus volkeri'', ''[[Heliocheilus albipunctella]]'', ''[[Coniesta ignefusalis]]'', and caterpillars of ''[[Amsacta moloneyi]]'' and ''[[Helicoverpa armigera]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/096708797228825 | title=Insect pests of millet in Northern Ghana. 1. Farmers' perceptions and damage potential | year=1997 | last1=Tanzubil | first1=Paul B. | last2=Yakubu | first2=Emmanuel A. | journal=International Journal of Pest Management| volume=43 | issue=2 | pages=133–136 }}</ref>

In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of ''[[Hycleus]]'' species, including ''Hycleus terminatus'' (syn. ''Mylabris afzelli''), ''Hycleus fimbriatus'' (syn. ''Mylabris fimbriatus''), ''Hycleus hermanniae'' (syn. ''Coryna hermanniae''), and ''Hycleus chevrolati'' (syn. ''Coryna chevrolati''), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lale N, Sastawa BM |year=2000 |title=Evaluation of host plant resistance, sowing date modification and intercropping as methods for the control of ''Mylabris'' and ''Coryna'' species (Coleoptera: Meloidae) infesting pearl millet in the Nigerian Sudan savanna |journal=J. Arid Environ.|volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=263–280 |issn=0140-1963 |doi=10.1006/jare.2000.0690|bibcode=2000JArEn..46..263L }}</ref>

===Other regions===
In South India, pests include the shoot fly ''[[Atherigona approximata]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Natarajan US, Raja V, Selvaraj S, Anavardham L |year=1973 |title=Extent of damage caused by shoot fly (''Atherigona approximate'') on bajra hybrid |journal=Madras Agric. J.|volume=60 |pages=584–585}}</ref>

In North America, regular pests include the chinch bug ''[[Blissus leucopterus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Starks KJ, Cassady AJ, Merkle OG, Boozaya-Angoon D |year=1982 |title=Chinch bug resistance in pearl millet |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology|volume=75|issue=2 |pages=337–339|doi=10.1093/jee/75.2.337}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Checking pearl millet crop.jpg|alt=Agronomist, Zimbabwe checks the crop|[[Agronomist]], [[Zimbabwe]]
File:Mahangu poundin.jpg|Mahangu pounding in [[Namibia]]
File:Mahangu pounding.jpg|Mahangu pounding in [[Namibia]]
File:Making dough from flour (10692692875).jpg|[[Flour mill]], [[Tanzania]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=77 ''Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains'', Chapters 4-6] - released by the [[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]] in 1996

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[[Category:Cenchrus]]
[[Category:Grasses of Africa]]
[[Category:Millets]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Africa]]
[[Category:Fodder]]
[[Category:Sahel]]
[[Category:Cereals]]