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Journalism

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Iṣẹ́ ìròyìn jẹ́ kíkọ àti pínpínká àwọn àpilẹ̀kọ bíi : ìtàkurọ̀sọ, ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀, òkodoro-ọ̀rọ̀, ìròrí àti àpilẹ̀kọ nípa àwọn ènìyàn tí wọ́n jẹyọ nínú ìròyìn ojoojúmọ́ láti fi ṣe ìfitónilétí fún àwọn ènìyàn àwùjlóòrèkóòrè. Gbólóhùn ìròyìn jẹ́ ohun tí a lè fi sọrí àwọn tí wọ́n ń kó ohun tí a mọ̀ sí ojúlówó ìròyìn jọ kí etí àwọn ènìyàn àwùjọ ó má ba gbófo, òníọ̀hún jẹ́ akọ́ṣẹ́mọṣẹ́ ni tàbí bẹ́ẹ̀ kọ́. Iṣẹ́ oníròyìn yàtọ síra wọn ní ìlú ati orílẹ̀-èdè sí orílẹ̀-èdè. Ní àwọn orílẹ̀-èdè kan, iṣẹ́ ìròyìn àti àwọn oníròyìn kò dá dúró nítorí wípé ìjọba ni ó ń ṣakóso rẹ̀. [1] l. Bá kan náà ni iṣẹ́ ìròyìn ati àwọn oníròyìn náà ń da ṣíṣẹ́ tí wọn kò sì sí lábẹ́ àkóso ìjọba ní orílẹ̀-èdè míràn. Bẹ́ẹ̀ sì ni orísiríṣi òfin tí ó ń de iṣẹ́ ìròyìn yàtọ̀ síra wọn ní orílẹ̀-èdè sí orílẹ̀-èdè èyí ti ó nííṣe pẹ̀lú ànfaní ẹ̀tọ́ ìsọ̀rọ̀ láìsí ìfòyà, ẹ̀tọ́ ìkóròyìn jọ tàbí fífi ìròyìn lède, tí ó fi mọ́ ìbanilórúkọ jẹ́ àti bẹ́ẹ̀ bẹ́ẹ̀ lọ. Dídé internet ati awọn fóònù ti mú ìyàtọ̀ tó pinminrin bá iṣẹ́ ìkóròyìn jọ láti ibẹ̀rẹ̀ ẹgbàá ọdún tí a wà yí (2000). Púpọ̀ àwọn ònkàròyìn ni wọ́n yí padà kúrò níbi kí wọ́ ma ka ìròyìn láti oríÌwé-ìròyìn olójoojúmọ́, Ìwé-ìròyìn àtìgbà-dégbà, tàbí kí wọ́n jókòó sídí ẹ̀rọ rédíò láti gbọ́ ìròyìn tí wọ́n sì ti ń ka àwọn ìròyìn ọlọ́kan-ò-jọkan lórí fóònù wọn. Gbogbo ilé-iṣẹ́ ìròyìn pátá náà ni eọ́ ti gbọ́n já ìlànà ọ̀tun tí internet mú wọ inú iṣẹ́ wọn tí àwọn náà sì tj sọ gbogbo ojú òpó ìròyìn wọn dowó, nítorí wípé tìrẹ Ìwé-ìròyìn jáde kò fi bẹ́ẹ̀ gbajúmọ̀ mọ́ tí owó tí wọ́n ń pa níbẹ̀ náà ti dínkù jọjọ.[2]

Ìgbéjade ìròyìn

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Ìpinu nípa gbígbé ìròyìn jáde yàtọ̀ síra w9n ní orílẹ̀-èdè sí orílẹ̀-èdè, ní orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́ríkà, àwọn ilé-iṣẹ́ ńlá ńlá ni wọ́n ń gbé ìròyìn jáde, bákan náà ni àwọn èyàn kan tí Won ń pe ní búlọ́gà náà ma ń gbé ìròyìn jáde bí ó tilẹ̀ jẹ́ wípé ó wà lábẹ́ ofin Federal Trade Commission ti Amẹ́ríka kí àwọn búlọ́gà ó gba ẹ̀bùn bí owó tabi nkan miran fún ìròyìn tàbí ìpolówó tí wọ́n bá ṣe fún àjọ tàbí ènìyàn kan, wọ́n sì gbọdọ̀ sọ ohun tí wọ́n bá gbà náà gẹ́gẹ́ bí ẹ̀bùn ọ̀fẹ́. Ìjọba Amẹ́ríkà gbé òfin yí kalẹ̀ láti lè dáàbò bo irúfẹ́ ìròyìn tí àwọn ènìyàn ń kà lórí ẹ̀rọ ayélujára.[3] Àwọn ìròyin tó fẹsẹ̀ múlẹ̀ ní orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́ríkà ni wọ́n ma ń ti ilé-iṣẹ́ ìròyìn gidi jáde tí wọ́n sì ní awọn olóòtú ìròyìn lóríṣirí, tí wọ́n sì tún ní ẹ̀ka ìpolówó ọ̀jà tí ìṣeẹ́ wọn kò sì papọ̀ tàbí tako ara wọn. Púpọ̀ ní irúfẹ́ àwọn ilé-iṣẹ́ ìròyìn ńlá ńlá wọ̀nyí ni wọ́n ma ń gba àwọn akọ́ṣẹ́-mọṣẹ́ nípa iṣẹ́ ìròyìn síṣẹ́ nílé iṣẹ́ wọn, tí àwọn náà sì wà lábẹ́ àkóso American Society of News Editors, Society of Professional Journalist, Investigative Reporters & Èsì tó rà, Inú tàbí Oline News Association. Bákan náà ni àwọn ilé-iṣẹ́ Ìwé-ìròyìn kọ̀ọ̀kan ni wọ́n ní òfin àti àlàkalẹ̀ tí yóò ma jẹ́ ìlànà fún gbogbo òṣìṣẹ̀ wọn. Àpẹẹrẹ irúfẹ́ ilé-iṣẹ́ Ìwé-ìròyìn bẹ́ẹ̀ ni The New York Times .[4] Nígbà tí wọ́n bá ń ṣàpilẹ̀kọ ìròyìn, ìkọ̀ròyìn òtítọ́ kí ó sì má fi ìròyìn ṣ'ègbè ni ó jẹ ònkàọ̀ròyìn lógún. Bí ó tilẹ̀ jẹ́ wípé àwọn ìròyìn kan ma ń ṣàfihàn èrò ònkọ̀ròyìn, àmọ́ èyí tí ó jẹ́ ojúlówó ni kí wọ́n gbé ìròyìn kalẹ̀ láì fi síbì kan. Ìròyìn ma ń wà ní ìsọ̀rí ìsọ̀rí yálà nínú Ìwé-ìròyìn ni tabi torí ẹ̀rọ ayélujára, èyí ma ń jẹ́ kí ìròyìn ó fẹsẹ̀ múlẹ̀ kí ó sì yàtọ̀ sí èrò ònkọ̀ròyìn lásán. Àwọn ònkaròyìn gbọ́dọ̀ ní àkíyèsí sí àwọn àkòrí ìròyìn kí wọ́n lè mọ ìyàtọ̀ sí èrò lásán ati òkodoro ọ̀rọ̀. Àwọn àròkọ tí wọ́n jẹ́ èrò ònkọ̀ròyìn tàbí ti olóòtú ni wọ́n sábà ma ń wà ní abẹ́ Èrò tàbí Èrò tiwa.[5] Àwọn ìròyìn tó jẹyọ, ìròyìn yàjó-yajó àti ìròyìn tó le koko ni wọ́n ma ń wà ní inú Ìwé-ìròyìn. Gẹ́gẹ́ bí Robert McChesney, sọ wípé iṣẹ́ ìròyìn tó lálàáfíà tó ń fi ìjọba awa ara wa hàn gbọ́dọ̀ lè yànàná èrò àwọn tó dipò ìjọba mú ati àwọn tí wọ́n fẹ́ dipò ìṣèjọba mú. Ó gbọ́dọ̀ ṣafihan èrò orísirísi kí ó sì kọ nípa àwọn ohun tí ó ṣe pàtàkì fún aráàlú láti gbọ́.[6]

Orísiríṣi aríyànjiyan ni ó ti wáyé lórí Ṣé ó yẹ kí oníròyìn fi èròngbà rẹ̀ hàn tàbí kí ó yẹra fún ìṣàfikún èrò sínú ìròyìn. Aríyànjiyan yí tún fi múlẹ̀ wípé ònkọ̀ròyìn ma ń kọ ìròyìn lórí kókó kan tí ó jẹyọ nínú awùjọ tí òfin ati ìlànà ìṣeẹ́ ìròyìn sì ma ń jẹ́ atọ́nà wọn láti kọ ohun tí ó jẹ́ ojúlówó ìròyìn látara kókó ọ̀rọ̀ náà fún àwùjọ náà. Láfikún, aríyànjiyan yí tún fi múlẹ̀ wípé iṣẹ́ ònkọ̀ròyìn ni láti kọ ìròyìn pẹ̀lú àwọn ọnà-èdè tó peregedé láti inú àgbàọ́nọ̀gbẹ ìmọ̀ èdè rẹ̀ láti fi yànàná kókó-ọ̀rọ̀ náà fáyégbọ́.[7]

Ìsọ̀rí iṣẹ́ ìròyìn

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Orísiríṣi ìsọ̀rí ni iṣẹ́ ìròyìn pín sí. Ojúṣe iṣẹ́ ìròyìn ni láti ma ṣọ́ ìṣesí ìjọba àti àwùjọ lowọ́-lẹ́sẹ̀. Agbékalẹ̀ ìsọ̀rí ìròyìn kan ni ó sábà ma ń kò àwọn orísiríṣi ìsọ̀rí ìròyìn sínú, èyí tí ó yàtọ̀ síra wọn. Ìpínsísọ̀rí ìwé ìròyìn tabi ará website wọn ni ó ma ń pèsè ìròyìn fún àwọn ònkaròyìn.[8][9]

Photojournalists photographing US President Barack Obama in November 2013
Photo and broadcast journalists interviewing a government official after a building collapse in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. March 2013.

Lára àwọn ìsọ̀rí náà ni:

Media greeting Cap Anamur II's Rupert Neudeck in Hamburg, 1986 at a press conference

Ojú òpó ìkànsíraẹni

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Dídé tí ojú òpó ìkànsíraẹni tí wọ́n ń pe ní social media ti mú ìyípadà tó ṣàra-ọ̀tọ̀ bá ìjábọ̀ ìròyìn tí ó sì mú itẹ̀síwájú bá ìṣeẹ́ ìròyìn lórí ẹ̀rọ ayélujára. Nínú ìwáfí tí àwọn kan ṣe ní ọdún 2014, púpọ̀ nínú àwọn ènìyàn ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà ni wọ́n sọ wípé àwọn ma ń sábà gbáralé ìròyìn orí ẹ̀rọ ayélujára ju kí àwọn ó ra Ìwé-ìròyìn tí wọ́n ń tẹ̀ jáde ní ojoojúmọ́. [12] From this, the conclusion can be drawn that breaking news nowadays often stems from user-generated content, including videos and pictures posted online in social media.[12] Ìdá ọgọ́ta nínú àwọn oníṣẹ́ ìròyìn tí wọ́n ń lo ojú òpó ayélujára ni wọ́n sọ wípé àwọn ma ń yára kàn sí àwọn olólùfẹ́ tí wọ́n sì ń tẹ̀lé ojú òpó wọn ní wàrànṣeṣà. Nígbà tí ìdá ọgbọ̀n gbà wípé ojú òpó ìkànsíraẹni ti mú ìyípadà tó gbópọn bá iṣẹ́ ìròyìn.[12] Láfikún, ìwádí tí Pew Research Center ṣe fi múlẹ̀ wípé ìdá mẹ́jọ nínú mẹ́wá àwọn ọmọ orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́rika ni wọ́n ń ṣamúlò ìròyìn lórí érọ ayélujára ju ìwé ìròyìn lọ. [13].

Ìròyìn ẹlẹ́jẹ̀

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Ìròyìn ẹlẹ́jẹ̀ ni a lè pè ní ìró tàbí ìròyìn òfegè tí kìí ṣe òótọ́ tí àwọn ènìyàn kan tàbí àwọn ẹgbẹ́ kan tí wọ́n fẹ́ fi ìròyìn ọ̀hún da rúgúdù sílẹ̀ láàrín ìlú tàbí agbègbè kan, tí ìròyìn náà sì ma ń ràn mọ̀ọ̀ bí iná inú pápá. Wọ́n ma ń gbé ìròyìn ẹlẹ́jẹ̀ kalẹ̀ pẹ̀lú èrò láti fi ṣi àwọn ènìyàn lọ́nà nípa nkan tàbí ènìyàn. Àpẹẹrẹ ni bí wọ́n ṣe gbé ìròyìn kan tí kìí ṣe òótọ́ jáde ní arabìnrin Hillary Clinton tí ó tún jẹ́ adíje dupò nínú ìdìbò sípò ààrẹ ní ọdún 2015 ní orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́ríkà léte ati fi ba obìnrin náà lórúkọ jẹ́.[14] Púpò nínú àwọn ìròyìn wọ̀nyí ni wón ma ń lo ojú òpó ìbánidọ́rẹ́ Facebook, Twitter ati TikTok láti fi pín irúfẹ́ ìròyìn náà ká láti fi bani lórúkọ jẹ́.[15] Àwọn alámùúlò àwọn ojú-òpó ìbánisọ̀rọ̀ tí a ti mẹ́nu bá wọ̀nyí lánfàní láti ṣe àgbéyẹwò irúfẹ́ ìròyìn tí wọ́n bá bá pàdé lórí àwọn ìkanì náà.

The phrase was popularized and used by Donald Trump during his presidential campaign to discredit what he perceived as negative news coverage of his candidacy and then the presidency.[16]

In some countries, including Turkey,[17] Egypt,[18] India,[19] Bangladesh,[20] Iran,[21] Nigeria,[22] Ethiopia,[23] Kenya,[24] Cote d’Ivoire,[25] Montenegro,[26] Kazakhstan,[27] Azerbaijan,[28] Malaysia,[29] Singapore,[30] Philippines,[31] and Somalia[32] journalists have been threatened or arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic.

Radio

Radio broadcasting increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached the peak of its importance during World War II, as radio and newsreels were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. In the Soviet Union, radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting.[33] The radio would however soon be eclipsed by broadcast television starting in the 1950s.

Television

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]
Àyọkà olórí: News broadcasting

Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with the establishment of CNN, news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today.

Ethics and standards

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]
Àyọkà olórí: Journalism ethics and standards
News photographers and reporters waiting behind a police line in New York City, in May 1994

While various existing codes have some differences, most share common elements including the principles of – truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness and public accountability – as these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its subsequent dissemination to the public.[34][35][36][37][38]

Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel propose several guidelines for journalists in their book The Elements of Journalism.[39] Their view is that journalism's first loyalty is to the citizenry and that journalists are thus obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of powerful individuals and institutions within society. In this view, the essence of journalism is to provide citizens with reliable information through the discipline of verification.

Some journalistic Codes of Ethics, notably the European ones,[40] also include a concern with discriminatory references in news based on race, religion, sexual orientation, and physical or mental disabilities.[41][42][43][44] The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism which recommends journalists to respect the presumption of innocence, in particular in cases that are still sub judice.[45]

In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the Independent Press Standards Organisation. This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticized the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure the public trust of newspapers.

This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity.

Because of the pressure on journalists to report news promptly and before their competitors, factual errors occur more frequently than in writing produced and edited under less time pressure. Thus a typical issue of a major daily newspaper may contain several corrections of articles published the previous day. Perhaps the most famous journalistic mistake caused by time pressure was the Dewey Defeats Truman edition of the Chicago Daily Tribune, based on early election returns that failed to anticipate the actual result of the 1948 US presidential election.

Codes of ethics

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

There are over 242 codes of ethics in journalism that vary across various regions of the world.[46] The codes of ethics are created through an interaction of different groups of people such as the public and journalists themselves. Most of the codes of ethics serve as a representation of the economic and political beliefs of the society where the code was written.[46] Despite the fact that there are a variety of codes of ethics, some of the core elements present in all codes are: remaining objective, providing the truth, and being honest.[46]

Journalism does not have a universal code of conduct; individuals are not legally obliged to follow a certain set of rules like a doctor or a lawyer does.[47] There have been discussions for creating a universal code of conduct in journalism. One suggestion centers on having three claims for credibility, justifiable consequence, and the claim of humanity.[48] Within the claim of credibility, journalists are expected to provide the public with reliable and trustworthy information, and allowing the public to question the nature of the information and its acquisition. The second claim of justifiable consequences centers on weighing the benefits and detriments of a potentially harmful story and acting accordingly. An example of justifiable consequence is exposing a professional with dubious practices; on the other hand, acting within justifiable consequence means writing compassionately about a family in mourning. The third claim is the claim of humanity which states that journalists are writing for a global population and therefore must serve everyone globally in their work, avoiding smaller loyalties to country, city, etc.[48]

See also

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Reviews

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Academic journals

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

References

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]
  1. ↑ "10 Most Censored Countries," Committee to Protect Journalists, 2 May 2012, page retrieved 23 May 2013.
  2. ↑ "Circulation, revenue fall for US newspapers overall despite gains for some". 
  3. ↑ "The FTC's Endorsement Guides: What People Are Asking". 7 September 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2018. 
  4. ↑ "Standards and Ethics". Retrieved 1 May 2018. 
  5. ↑ "What Is an Op-Ed Article?". The Balance Small Business (in Èdè Gẹ̀ẹ́sì). Retrieved 2022-05-16. 
  6. ↑ McChesney, Robert W. (2012-10-01). "Farewell to Journalism?". Journalism Practice 6 (5–6): 614–26. doi:10.1080/17512786.2012.683273. ISSN 1751-2786. 
  7. ↑ Thomson, T.J. (2018). "The Evolution of Story: How Time and Modality Affect Visual and Verbal Narratives". Visual Communication Quarterly 25: 4 (4): 199–210. doi:10.1080/15551393.2018.1498742. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/123992/2/The%2520Evolution%2520of%2520Story.pdf. 
  8. ↑ Harcup 2009, p. 4.
  9. ↑ Stone, Gerald C.; O'Donnell, Mary K.; Banning, Stephen (January 1, 1997). "Public perceptions of a newspaper's watchdog role". Newspaper Research Journal 18 (1–2): 86–102. doi:10.1177/073953299701800108. 
  10. ↑ Corcoran, Mark (21 February 2012). "Drone journalism takes off". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-02-21/drone-journalism-takes-off/3840616. 
  11. ↑ "Gonzo Journalism". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1069436/gonzo-journalism. Retrieved 14 October 2012. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Willnat, Lars (2014). "The American Journalist in the Digital Age: Key Findings" (PDF). 
  13. ↑ "86% of Americans get news online from smartphone, computer or tablet". Pew Research Center (in Èdè Gẹ̀ẹ́sì). Retrieved 2021-09-30. 
  14. ↑ "US election: Fake news becomes the news" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2016-11-07. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-37896753. 
  15. ↑ "Mark Zuckerberg is in denial about how Facebook is harming our politics". Vox. https://www.vox.com/new-money/2016/11/6/13509854/facebook-politics-news-bad. 
  16. ↑ "Trump finally admits that "fake news" just means news he doesn't like". Vox. https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/5/9/17335306/trump-tweet-twitter-latest-fake-news-credentials. 
  17. ↑ "Turkey: COVID-19 pandemic increases climate of fear for journalists". Amnesty International. 1 May 2020. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/05/turkey-covid19-pandemic-increases-climate-of-fear-for-journalists/. 
  18. ↑ "Egypt is more concerned with controlling information than containing the coronavirus". The Globe and Mail. 3 April 2020. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-egypt-is-more-concerned-with-controlling-information-than-containing/. 
  19. ↑ "Journalists detained, assaulted in India during COVID-19 lockdown". Committee to Protect Journalists. 28 April 2020. https://cpj.org/2020/04/journalists-detained-assaulted-in-india-during-cov.php. 
  20. ↑ "Bangladeshi journalists, cartoonist, arrested for Covid-19 coverage". Reporters Without Borders. 14 May 2020. https://rsf.org/en/news/bangladeshi-journalists-cartoonist-arrested-covid-19-coverage. 
  21. ↑ "Iran: Press freedom violations recounted in real time January 2020". Reporters Without Borders. 14 May 2020. Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200505210016/https://rsf.org/en/news/iran-press-freedom-violations-recounted-real-time-january-2020. 
  22. ↑ "Coronavirus Law Used to Arrest Nigerian Journalist Over Health Story". Market Watch. 20 April 2020. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200521204841/https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/coronavirus-law-used-to-arrest-nigerian-journalist-over-health-story-2020-04-20?mod=mw_more_headlines&tesla=y. 
  23. ↑ "Ethiopia: Free Speech at Risk Amid Covid-19". Human Rights Watch. 6 May 2020. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/06/ethiopia-free-speech-risk-amid-covid-19. 
  24. ↑ "Protect Kenya's Journalists Reporting on Covid-19". Human Rights Watch. 4 May 2020. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/04/protect-kenyas-journalists-reporting-covid-19. 
  25. ↑ "Authorities across West Africa attacking journalists covering COVID-19 pandemic". IFEX. 22 April 2020. https://ifex.org/authorities-across-west-africa-attacking-journalists-covering-covid-19-pandemic/. 
  26. ↑ "Concern for Rights in Montenegro amid COVID-19 Fight". Balkan Insight. 26 March 2020. https://balkaninsight.com/2020/03/26/concern-for-rights-in-montenegro-amid-covid-19-fight/. 
  27. ↑ "Kazakh journalists harassed over Covid-19 reporting". Reporters Without Borders. 30 April 2020. https://rsf.org/en/news/kazakh-journalists-harassed-over-covid-19-reporting. 
  28. ↑ "Azerbaijan: Crackdown on Critics Amid Pandemic". Human Rights Watch. 16 April 2020. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/16/azerbaijan-crackdown-critics-amid-pandemic. 
  29. ↑ "Malaysian journalist faces six years in prison over COVID-19 Facebook posts". Committee to Protect Journalists. 5 May 2020. https://cpj.org/blog/2020/05/malaysian-journalist-faces-six-years-in-prison-ove.php. 
  30. ↑ "Singapore's Fake News and Contempt Laws a Threat to Media, Journalists Say". Voice of America. 6 May 2020. https://www.voanews.com/press-freedom/singapores-fake-news-and-contempt-laws-threat-media-journalists-say. 
  31. ↑ "Some leaders use pandemic to sharpen tools against critics". ABC News. 16 April 2020. https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/coronavirus-crisis-excuses-curbs-free-speech-70177977. 
  32. ↑ "Somali Journalists Arrested, Intimidated While Covering COVID-19". Voice of America. 18 April 2020. https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/somali-journalists-arrested-intimidated-while-covering-covid-19. 
  33. ↑ Stephen Lovell, "Broadcasting Bolshevik: The radio voice of Soviet culture, 1920s–1950s." Journal of Contemporary History 48.1 (2013): 78–97.
  34. ↑ "Fourth Estate – Core Journalism Principles, Standards and Practices". Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corporation. Archived from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2016. 
  35. ↑ IFJ (International Federation of Journalists) – Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists Archived 14 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. (DOC version)
  36. ↑ "ASNE (American Society of Newspapers Editors) – Statement of Principles". Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 2013-03-01.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ "APME (Associated Press Managing Editors) – Statement of Ethical Principles". 2008-06-22. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 2013-03-01.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ "(Society of Professional Journalists) – Code of Ethics". SPJ. Retrieved 2013-03-01. 
  39. ↑ "The Elements of Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know and the Public Should Expect – Introduction | Project for Excellence in Journalism (PEJ)". Journalism.org. 2006-06-19. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-23. 
  40. ↑ Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe – Resolution 1003 (1993) on the ethics of journalism (see clause 33) Archived 26 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
  41. ↑ UK – Press Complaints Commission – Codes of Practice (see item 12, "Discrimination") Archived 14 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
  42. ↑ "Italy – FNSI's La Carta dei Doveri (The Chart of Duties)" (in Èdè Ítálì). Archived from the original on 12 April 2008. Retrieved 2012-12-24.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) (section "Principi")
  43. ↑ Àdàkọ:In lang Spain – FAPE's Código Deontológico (Deontological Code) (see Principios Generales, item 7, "a")
  44. ↑ "Brazil – FENAJ's Code of Ethics" (PDF) (in Èdè Pọtogí). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2009.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) (20.8 KB) (see Article 6, item XIV)
  45. ↑ PACE Resolution 1003 (1993) on the Ethics of Journalism Archived 26 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine. (see clause 22)
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 Yang, Aimei; Taylor, Maureen; Saffer, Adam J (2016-03-01). "Ethical convergence, divergence or communitas? An examination of public relations and journalism codes of ethics" (in en). Public Relations Review 42 (1): 146–60. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.08.001. ISSN 0363-8111. 
  47. ↑ Wilson-Smith, Anthony (3 August 1998). "The Conflict of Journalists". Maclean's: 11. http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=a001e71b-a816-42a1-8f25-61e48b50fcf4%40sessionmgr102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=911611&db=a9h. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Ward, Stephen (5 March 2018). "Philosophical Foundations for Global Journalism Ethics". Journal of Mass Media Ethics 20: 3–21. doi:10.1207/s15327728jmme2001_2. 

Sources

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

Further reading

[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]
  • de Beer Arnold S. and John C. Merrill, eds. Global Journalism: Topical Issues and Media Systems (5th ed. 2008)
  • Hanitzsch, Thomas et al. eds. Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures around the Globe (2019) online review
  • Kaltenbrunner, Andy and Matthias Karmasin and Daniela Kraus, eds. "The Journalism Report V: Innovation and Transition", Facultas, 2017
  • Marthoz, J.-P. (2016). Giving up on the graft and the grind: Why journalists are failing to cover difficult stories. Index on Censorship, 45(2), 22–27.
  • Quick, Amanda C. ed. World Press Encyclopedia: A Survey of Press Systems Worldwide (2nd ed. 2 vol 2002); 2500 pp; highly detailed coverage of every country large and small.
  • Rodgers, Ronald R. 2018. The Struggle for the Soul of Journalism : The Pulpit Versus the Press 1833-1923. Columbia Missouri: University of Missouri Press.
  • Rutherfurd, Livingston., John Peter Zenger; His Press, His Trial, and a Bibliography of Zenger Imprints. Gloucester,Mass: Peter Smith, 1963.
  • Shoemaker, Pamela J. and Akiba A. Cohen, eds. News Around the World: Content, Practitioners, and the Public (2nd ed. 2005)
  • Sloan, W. David; Mullikin Parcell, Lisa, eds (2002). American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5155-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=rziNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR5. 
  • Sterling, Christopher H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of journalism, *(6 vol, SAGE, 2009).
[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀]

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