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User:Kpalion/Polish cuisine

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Polish cuisine
Polish sausages, dill pickles and caraway rye bread
Polish sausages, dill pickles and caraway rye bread
History
Foods and dishes
Drinks

Polish cuisine is an ethnic cooking style which originated in Poland, a Central European country located in the temperate zone. It is characterized by the predominant use of pork, beef, chicken, and fish, as well as root vegetables, legumes, cabbage, potatoes, and various kinds of groats. Polish dishes are often described as predominantly fat, salty and tart, a result of various food preservation techniques, such as pickling, marinating, and brine-curing, developed in response to Poland's long, cold winters. The country's central location in the North European plain means that local cooks have often borrowed from the culinary traditions of other nations, both neighboring and those further away, as evidenced by the names of such mainstays of Polish cooking as barszcz ukraiński ("Ukrainian borscht"), pierogi ruskie ("Ruthenian dumplings"), chłodnik litewski ("Lithuanian cold soup"), karp po żydowsku ("carp Jewish style"), ryba po grecku ("fish Greek style") or fasolka po bretońsku ("white beans Breton style"). While outside Poland and Polish diaspora, Polish cooking is not as popuar as French or Italian cuisines, it is nonetheless famous for its kiełbasa (pork sausage), pierogi (filled dumplings), gołąbki (stuffed cabbage roll-ups), bigos (meat-and-sauerkraut stew), dill pickles, and a wide range of tart soups, such as barszcz (clear beet borscht), żur (sour rye meal soup) or kapuśniak (sauerkraut soup).

Eating habits and etiquette

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Meals of the day

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Example of a typical Polish dinner
Soup: chicken broth served over noodles and carrots, sprinkled with parsley
Main course: breaded pork cutlet with sides of dilled potatoes and braised cabbage
Drink: a glass of pale lager
Dessert: one of various Polish cakes

In Poland, the first meal of the day is śniadanie (breakfast) which is traditionally richer that the typical continental breakfast and consists of bread or rolls with butter, cold cuts of meat and cheese, and fresh vegetables, washed down with hot coffee, tea or cocoa. Eggs, boiled or fried in some form, are often also served. Children may be given hot milk soup over noodles, rice, oatmeal or cream of wheat, but this is being replaced by American-style breakfast cereals with cold milk or yoghurt. Schoolchildren and early-shift workers may have drugie śniadanie (second breakfast), or bag lunch, later before noon.

The main meal of the day is obiad (dinner), traditionally eaten around midday or early afternoon. It is typically a multicourse affair, almost invariably conisting of at least zupa (a bowl of soup) followed by drugie danie ("the other course"), i.e., the main dish. The latter usually involves meat with a starchy side (potatoes, groats, rice or noodles) and a vegetable side. Fish may be served instead of meat, especially on Fridays and other fast days. The main dish may be followed by a dessert. A particularly festive dinner may include a cold starter, such as a herring rollmop or steak tartare, served before the soup, and a hot entrée immediately before the main dish.

Kolacja (supper) is the day's last, and usually lightest, meal. It may be simply a re-run of breakfast, but can also include sweet farinaceous dishes, like plum dumplings or crêpes, cooked vegetable salads, and cold fish or aspic dishes. Some people, especially children, may also have a light snack known as podwieczorek and equivalent to the English afternoon tea, between the dinner and the supper. Those Poles who follow a daily schedule more adapted to a modern urban lifestyle, may have a lighter midday meal, which goes in Polish under the English appellation of lunch, and a multicourse obiadokolacja ("dinner-supper" combination) in the late afternoon. The archaic word wieczerza ("evening meal") may be still used for a particularly festive evening dinner, such as wieczerza wigilijna (Christmas Eve dinner), traditionally the biggest meal of the year which begins when the first star appears in the sky.

Typical menus for a Polish Sunday dinner

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Course or side Example 1 Example 2 Example 3
Soup Meat broth with noodles Tomato soup with rice and sour cream Sour rye soup with boiled potatoes
Main dish Breaded pork cutlet Fried chicken Beef stew
Starchy side Boiled potatoes covered in gravy French fries Pearl barley
Vegetable side Salad of sauerkraut and shredded carrots Lettuce dressed with sour cream Salad of brine-pickled cucumbers and onion
Dessert Apple cake powdered with confectioner's sugar Yeast cake with fruit topping Cheesecake

Source: AD/mp/WP Kuchnia (2015). "Ile kalorii ma tradycyjny polski obiad?" [How many calories does a traditional Polish dinner have?]. WP Kuchnia (in Polish). Wirtualna Polska Media. Retrieved 2017-11-26.

Table manners

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At a table, with fork and knife.[1] Poles have developed a great reverence for food, especially bread, and wasting it is considered sinful. An old tradition demands that a morsel of bread that has fallen on the ground be picked up and kissed. Eating at a table in a hat is considered disrespectful. It is customary to wait until all seats at a table have been taken before proceeding to eat. A Pole will typically begin a meal by wishing the others gathered at the table smacznego ("enjoy your meal") and conclude by saying dziękuję ("thank you") – thanking for the company rather than for the food.[2]

Gloger about eating bareheaded

Food establishments

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Polish English
Restauracja Restaurant
Gospoda, karczma Inn
Naleśnikarnia Crêperie
Pierogarnia Pierogi bar
Kawiarnia Café
Ciastkarnia Patisserie, Konditorei
Bar mleczny Greasy spoon
Stołówka, jadłodajnia Cafeteria
Szynk, bar, knajpa, pub Bar, public house
Smażalnia Fish-and-chip shop
Mała gastronomia Food booth, hole in the wall
Budka z piwem Beer kiosk

Home cooking and hospitality

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Hospitality in Polish proverbs:

  • Czym chata bogata, tym rada. "Whatever the cottage abounds in, it is glad to share."
  • Gość w dom – Bóg w dom. "When a guest enters the home, God enters the home."
  • Zastaw się, a postaw się.[3] "Pawn yourself, but flaunt yourself."

Basic foods

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Cereals and breads

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Barley groats
Buckwheat groats

Cereals and pseudocereals:

Vegetables

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Root vegetables have been a Polish staple since times immemorial. They include the turnip, radish, parsnip, onion, celeriac, rutabaga, carrot, beetroot, and parsley. The leafy parts of the latter two are also used. Potato, which only gained popularity in Poland at the end of the 18th century, is now the country's predominant tuber vegetable. Legumes, such as white beans, runner beans, broad beans, green beans, peas, and lentils, also count among the nation's most popular vegetables. Cabbage – white, red, and to a lesser extent Savoy – is Poland's principal leaf vegetable; others include lettuce, Brussels sprouts, spinach, sorrel, and – now somewhat forgotten – kale. Cucumber, tomato, bell pepper, eggplant, zucchini, and pumpkin are widely used in Poland, as are cauliflower, broccoli, kohlrabi, leek, rhubarb, and asparagus.

Fruits and nuts

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Redcurrants

Polish orchards provide an abundance of fruits, such as apples, pears, plums, peaches, apricots, sweet and sour cherries, as well as black and redcurrant. Strawberries, gooseberries, quince, and watermelons are also grown domestically. The undergrowth of Polish forests is a rich source of various berries, including woodland strawberries, raspberries, bilberries, lingonberries, and blackberries. Cranberries, elderberries and blueberries are also employed in Polish cuisine. Local climate is not suitable for citrus fruits, but lemons and oranges have been imported for centuries and have found numerous uses in Polish kitchens. Assorted nuts and dried or candied southern fruits, known collectively in Polish as bakalie, are used liberally in the preparation of many Polish cakes and desserts. These include hazelnuts and walnuts (both grown domestically), almonds, raisins, dried figs and dates, as well as candied citrus peels. Roasted chestnuts, once sold in the Polish streets, have become largely forgotten, but are still used in some Polish recipes for turkey stuffing.

Mushrooms

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Ceps in a basket

Mushroom hunting is one of favorite family pastimes in Poland and wild mushrooms are used to enhance the flavor of many a Polish dish, soup or gravy. The cep (king bolete, penny bun) is the most prized mushroom species, known commonly in Polish as prawdziwek, or "the real mushroom". Despite the Polish saying, lepszy rydz niż nic ("a saffron milk cap is better than nothing"), Lactarius deliciosus is another choice mushroom, as is the chanterelle. Dozens of other edible mushroom species are picked as well. Among the most popular are the bay bolete, birch bolete, red cap, buterball, bare-toothed rusula, yellow knight, meadow mushroom, parasol mushroom, honey mushroom, oyster mushroom, and morel. Wild mushrooms are easily preserved by drying, pickling or brine-curing. The cultivated button mushroom is also widely used, but it is not the first thing the Poles call to mind when they think of grzyby (mushrooms).

Herbs, seeds and spices

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As with any national cuisine, the distinctive character of Polish cooking is largely defined by the spices and herbs that are used for seasoning. Next to black pepper, Poland's most popular seasoning is probably marjoram, wich is used to flavor pork, water fowl and game dishes, as well as certain kinds of soups, stews, pâtés, and sausages. Allspice – known in Polish as ziele angielskie, or "English herb" – and bay leaves are used extensively in Polish soups, stews, sauces, marinades, pickling, and various savory dishes. Onion, garlic, and horseradish are also widely used. Juniper berries are mostly used to tone down undesirable off-flavors of game or mutton dishes. Caraway fruits are often sprinkled on sauerkraut, pork, and rye bread; they may be also used when making various sausages and sauces, and even caraway soup. Mustard seeds are widely used in pickling vegetables and mushrooms, and to season meats and sauces. Saffron, once among the most desirable spices of Old Polish cuisine – is still occasionally used to add a rich golden color and a soft mellow taste to soups, rice, and egg breads. Ground paprika, mild or hot, may be used to add color and flavor to various dishes, although in smaller quantities than in Hungarian cuisine. Savory is used, especially in the region of Greater Poland, to season legumes and meat dishes. Crushed poppyseeds are widely used in Polish cakes and desserts – especially those associated with Christmas; whole poppyseeds, as well as black cumin, may be sprinkled on bread and rolls. Other popular spices include capers, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, ginger, and vanilla. Dill is the most widely used garden green in Polish cuisine. It is commonly used in poultry stuffing, soups, and sauces or sprinkled over salads and boiled potatoes. Parsley leaves and chives enjoy similar popularity and are used in analogous ways. Other garden greens worth mentioning include lovage, chervil and garden cress – not to be confused with water cress, which most Poles would consider unfit for human consumption.

Pork

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Polish pork cuts:

Beef and veal

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Polish beef cuts:

Other meats

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  • Poultry (chicken (eggs), duck, goose, turkey, guinea fowl, pigeon)
  • Mutton and lamb
  • Rabbit
  • Game (hare, wild boar, venison)
  • Game birds (pheasant, grouse, partridge, quail, woodcock, snipe)

Charcuterie

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Polish cuisine has developed numerous kinds of sausages, pâtés, and smoked meats that are widely appreciated also outside Poland itself. Although such products are now commercially available in large quantities, home sausage-making and meat curing remains popular in rural areas.[4] Due to Polish climate, smoking, rather than drying, is the preferred method of meat curing. In fact, the very word wędliny, or the Polish equivalent of charcuterie (cured meats), derives from the verb wędzić, "to smoke-cure". Hardwoods, such as oak, beech, alder, maple, linden, pear, apple, cherry, or plum, are best fitted for smoking, juniper being the only coniferous exception.[5]

Tender, juicy and pink pork parts, such as ham, shoulder or loin, seasoned with pepper, allspice, cloves, bay leaves, and garlic, and then cold or warm-smoked for weeks, have been Polish favorites for centuries. Ham may be additionally cured in beer to produce szynka piwna. Baleron (smoked pork shoulder) and polędwica wędzona (smoked pork loin) are typically encased in pork skin and tightly trussed with a cord before smoking. Smoked bacon, pork ribs, and hocks are also popular, as are smoked beef tongues. Smoked goose breasts (półgęski wędzone) are an Old Polish gourmet specialty.[6]

While in English the word "kielbasa" refers to a smoked garlicky pork sausage, in Polish kiełbasa is a generic term referring to any kind of sausage. That said, most of Polish sausages are made of ground pork or pork-and-beef mixture, and highly seasoned. The best known varieties, like wiejska ("country sausage") or krakowska ("Kraków sausage") are cold smoked-sausages made of ground pork and beef that can be stored for a long time. Traditionally, wiejska is made using pork intestines as casings, while krakowska is made of larger middle beef intestines. Seasonings inlcude salt, pepper, allspice, garlic, marjoram, and nutmeg. Other popular types of sausage include kminkowa, seasoned with crushed caraway seeds; pomorska ("Pomeranian sausage") – with paprika; juniper-smoked myśliwska ("hunter's sausage"); and kresowa ("Eastern Borderlands sausage") with meat cured in vodka or rum.

An all-pork sausage that is only hot-smoked for a short time and then simmered in hot water is what usually passes for "Polish kielbasa" in America.

  • baleron (perhaps from French paleron, 'chuck steak' [SWO])- large pieces of pork collar encased in skin; marbled fat keeps moist while smoked and cooked; usu. served cold;
  • blok ozorkowy - pig's blood, small pieces of fat around chunks of pickled tongue and pork; served hot or cold; links 36 cm long, 13 cm wide
  • kabanos - lean pork, pepper, juniper, garlic, caraway, allspice; smoked and dried; links 30 cm long, 1 cm wide
  • kaszanka - pig's blood, minced liver, lungs and fat, onion, marjoram, buckwheat or barley groats; simmered or fried; links 10 cm long, 4 cm wide
  • czosnkowa ("garlic sausage") - cured pork, pepper, marjoram, garlic; simmered and lightly smoked; links 25 cm long, 3 cm wide
  • lisiecka ("Liszki sausage") - very lean pork coarsely chopped, pepper, garlic; hot smoked and dried over hardwood; quite salty; links 23 cm long, 3.5 cm wide
  • biała ("white sausage") - fresh; pork and veal or beef, pepper, garlic, marjoram; served with sauerkraut and potatoes or in soups; links 12 cm long, 3.5 cm wide
  • myśliwska ("hunter's sausage") - coarse-cut pork (sometimes beef), pepper, sugar, juniper; hot-smoked twice over beech, then dried; deep brown color; links 15 cm long, 3.5 cm wide; served on rye bread
  • podwawelska ("Wawel sausage") - high-quality pork (sometime poultry) and garlic, lightly smoked and roasted; served cold or grilled; links 18 cm long, 3 cm wide
  • toruńska ("Toruń sausage") - pork (sometimes chicken), made into long loops draped over sticks to be dried and hot smoked; links 25 cm long, 2 cm wide
  • wiejska ("country sausage") - fine textured, pork and veal, pepper, marjoram, garlic; scalded in hot water, then hot smoked in long loops; links 20 cm long, 3 cm wide
  • zwyczajna ("regular sausage") - pork and beef, pepper, garlic, marjoram; heavily smoked; used in soups and stews; Żywiec region; links 23 cm long, 3.5 cm wide
  • krakowska ("Cracovian sausage") - lean pork, allspice, coriander, garlic; cooked and hot-smoked, sometimes dried (krakowska sucha); served cold; links 30 cm long, 8 cm wide
  • parówka - Frankfurter-style, finely ground pork or beef, extended with chicken, briefly boiled; served recooked for breakfast; links 12 cm long, 2 cm wide
  • pasztetowa - pork and liver spreadign sausage, marjoram; sometime lightly smoked; links 12 cm long, 2 cm wide
  • salceson (from Italian salsiccione, 'sausage' [SWO])- headcheese; served cold; czarny contains blood; ozorkowy contains togues
  1. Nichola Fletcher, Sausage, DK Publishing, 2012
  2. Stanley Marianski, Adam Mariański, Miroslaw Gebarowski, Polish Sausages, Authentic Recipes And Instructions, Bookmagic LLC, 2009

Fish

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Polish rivers and lakes have long provided an ubundance of fish and crayfish. Among the most popular freshwater or anadromous fish are the carp, bream, tench, pike, zander, perch, burbot, salmon, and trout. The Baltic Sea is home to such fish as the herring, sprat, cod, mackerel, and flounder. While fresh marine fish are only available in the the maritime region of Pomerania, salted herrings are a staple food throughout the country.

Dairy and eggs

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  • milk
  • buttermilk
  • śmietana, sour cream
  • yogurt
  • sour milk
  • twaróg / biały ser, farmer cheese
  • whey

Extensive use of fermented milk products is characteristic feature of Polish cuisine. These include sour milk, sour cream, yogurt, buttermilk and whey. Soured heavy cream, or śmietana is often used as a cold topping and as an addition to soups, salad dressings, hot and cold sauces, casseroles, etc.[7] Poles generally classify cheeses into two categories: twaróg, or ser biały ("white cheese"), and ser żółty ("yellow cheese"). The former is a firm, but crumbly, curd cheese, while the latter refers to any aged rennet-set cheese, typically similar to Dutch, German, and Swiss cheeses like Tilsit, Gouda, Edam, and Emmentaler.[8]

Fats

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  • Animal fats: butter, lard
  • Vegatable fats: sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, linseed oil, margarine

Sweeteners

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Until the advent of expensive imported cane sugar and then domestically produced beet sugar, honey was the only sweetener available in Poland. It is still used extensively not only in making cakes and desserts, but is also added to hot beverages, cordials, vegetables, stews and roast meat. It is the principal ingredient of mead. The flavor and color of honey depend on the species of flower that bees obtained their nectar from; common varieties include linded honey, buckwheat honey, and rapeseed honey.

Condiments

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  • Salt
  • Mustard
  • Tomato ketchup
  • Mayonnaise
  • Prepared horseradish, beet-and-horseradish relish
  • Magi
  • Vegeta

Dishes

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Main article: List of Polish dishes

Recipies/entries in Strybel:

  • Appetizers and hors d'oeuvres:
    • skewered hors d'oeuvres (koreczki)
    • canapes or open-faced sandwiches (kanapki): ham; sausage; pate; roast meat; beef tongue; sprat or sardine; herring; smoked salmon; white cheese; yellow cheese; egg; spreads: roast meat, ham, sausage, herring, smoked fish, anchovy, chicken liver, muchroom, white cheese, egg, egg-and-chives
    • flavored butter: dill; parsley and chives; spinach; horseradish; mustard; anchovy; herring; crayfish
    • decoration: radish "roses", egg-and-tomato "toadstools", etc.
    • "Polish oyster" (raw yolk in oil, lemon juice, salt and pepper)
    • herring: pickled, in oil, with apples, rollmops, in sour cream, with mushrooms, marinated in wine
  • Eggs and other breakfast dishes:
    • stuffed eggs (mushrooms, sprats, caviar, herring, meat)
    • hot stuffed eggs in shells
  • Fish:
    • carp in aspic with raisins
    • sander in dill aspic
    • stuffed poached pike polonaise
    • trout au bleu
    • fish in vegetables "Greek style"
    • fish pate
    • sprats with garlic
    • pike in raisin sauce
    • halibut in walnut sauce
    • sander in green sauce
    • salt cod in cream sauce
    • crayfish a la Radziwiłł
    • crayfish and pike pie
  • Pork:
    • roast pork loin with plum butter
    • poached pork loin
    • jellied pig's feet ("cold feet")
  • Beef and veal:
    • boiled beef tongue
    • cold beef tenderloin
    • beef/veal roulade
    • beef/veal/pork tongue in aspic
    • steak tartare
    • beef Stroganoff
    • veal and ham pie
    • Roast beef au jus; with mushrooms; hussar style; with horseradish
    • Pot roast (sztufada)
    • Beef collops (bitki, zrazy) au jus; in sour cream; with mushrooms; a la Nelson
    • Steak roll-ups (zrazy zawijane); Warsaw style; with black bread with pickle and salt pork; with onion and salt pork; a la Zagłoba; with mushrooms; with liver;
    • Beef tenderlion Warsaw style
    • Rib steak smothered in onions
    • Beef stew (gulasz)
    • Beef shish kebab (szaszłyk)
    • Boiled beef (sztukamięs)
    • Beef tongue in grey sauce, horseradish sauce
    • Stuffed roast veal breast
    • Veal chops with mushrooms
    • Wienerschnitzel
    • Veal stewed with prunes and raisins
    • Veal roll-ups
  • Poultry:
    • chicken/duck roulade
    • stuffed goose neck
    • "Strabourg pate" (goose liver)
    • turkey, goose or duck in Malaga aspic
    • duck pie
    • chicken and mushroom pie
  • Other meats (incl. game)
    • hare/rabbit pate
  • Sauces, gravies, relishes:
    • flavored mayonnaise: mustard, horseradish, beet, tomato, spinach, garden greens, herbs, lemon, cranberry
    • sauces: chive, horseradish, garden green, beet, tomato, caper, anchovy, gherkin, pickled mushroom, Tartar, mustard,
    • beet-and-horseradish relish (ćwikła)
    • plum sauce
    • lingongberry-and-pear sauce
    • cranberry-and-currant sauce
    • cherry sauce
  • Salads:
    • mixed vegetable salad
    • spring salad
    • potato-and-herring salad
    • bean, potato and pepper salad
    • beet-and-egg salad
    • cauliflower-and-celeriac salad
    • leek-and-egg salad
    • asparagus-and-ham salad
    • crayfish salad
    • sausage-and-celeriac salad
    • Frankfurter-and-tomato salad
  • Meat-and-vegetable and vegetarian dishes:
    • stuffed tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers
    • bigos
  • Soups
    • beef or chicken broth
    • broth a la Leszczyński (with liver dumplings)
    • clear red borscht
    • Ukrainian borscht
    • white borscht / żur
    • duck blood soup
    • tripe soup
    • white cabbage soup
    • sauerkraut soup
    • barley soup (krupnik)
    • split pea soup
    • bean soup
    • lentil soup
    • wild mushroom soup
    • Polish onion soup
    • vegetable soup
    • cauliflower soup
    • dill soup
    • potato soup
    • caraway soup
    • dill pickle soup
    • tomato soup
    • leek soup
    • sorrel soup
    • beer soup
    • fish chowder
    • crayfish soup
    • Lithuanian cold borscht (chłodnik)
    • rhubarb soup
    • fruit soups: blueberry; apple; strawberry and gooseberry; pear and apple (garus); plum
    • milk soups
    • "nothing" soup
  • Soup garnishes:
    • egg-drop noodles (lane kluski)
    • liver dumplings (kluski wątrobiane)
    • forcemeat balls (pulpety)
    • noodle squares (łazanki, from Italian lasagna [SWO])
    • "little ear" dumplings (uszka)
    • croquettes
    • puff-pastry pellets (groszek ptysiowy)
    • paszteciki
    • kulebiak
    • croutons
    • rice, groats, eggs, potatoes


Breakfast dishes

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Starters and hors d'oeuvres

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Soups

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Polish cuisine knows a plethora of various soups, hot and cold, savory and sweet, from hearty peasant meals in a bowl to clear gourmet broths. These are consumed in Poland on a daily basis, typically as the first dish of a dinner. Most of the hot savory soups are based on a stock of boiled fresh or smoked meats (pork, chicken, beef or veal) and vegetable. The usual soups greens, known as włoszczyzna, or "Italian stuff", is a mix of carrots, celeriacs, parsley roots, leeks, and sometimes also Savoy cabbage. The stock is typically seasoned with peppercorns, allspice, and bay leaves. Strained and served over noodles with chopped carrots retained from the stock, and sprinkled with freshly chopped parsley leaves, it may be a soup in itself, known in Polish as rosół. Countless other soups may be cooked, depending on additional ingredents mixed into the stock. Some of the national favorites include the mixed vegetable soup, tomato soup, wild mushroom soup, cauliflower soup, dill soup, potato soup, caraway soup, leek soup, split pea soup, bean soup, lentil soup, and thick onion soup. Meatier soups include the spicy tripe soup (flaczki) and oxtail soup. Red borscht (barszcz czerwony) is a ruby-colored broth of fermented beetroot juice. The hearty East Slavic variation of this soup is known in Poland as barszcz ukraiński, or "Ukrainian borscht". A related tangy soup of Polish origin is the white borscht (biały barszcz or żurek) made from soured ryemeal. Dill pickle soup (ogórkowa) made from brine-cured cucumbers, sauerkraut soup (kapuśniak) and sorrel soup are also on the tart side. Krupnik is a Old Polish classic of boiled barley and vegetables.

beer soup (polewka piwna), fish chowder (rybna), crayfish soup (zupa rakowa)


[9]

Meat dishes

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Fish dishes

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Vegetable sides

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Starchy sides

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Farinaceous dishes

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Desserts

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Beverages

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Non-alcoholic

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  • Coffee, tea, cocoa
  • Fruit juices and compotes
  • Kefir, buttermilk, sour milk, whey
  • Kvass

Alcoholic

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  • Beer
  • Mead and wine
  • Vodka (pure and scented)
  • Cordials and liqueurs

Seasonality and special occasions

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History

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Main page: User:Kpalion/History of Polish cuisine

Regional cuisine

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Major ethnographic regions of Poland: 1. Eastern Pomerania, 2. Warmia, 3. Masuria, 4. Masovia, 5. Kuyavia, 6. Greater Poland, 7. central Poland, 8. Upper Silesia, 9. Lesser Poland, 10. Polish Carpathians, 11–12. Eastern Borderlands, 13. Western Borderlands

References

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ Surzycka-Mliczewska (2005), p. 41.
  2. ^ Surzycka-Mliczewska (2005), p. 42.
  3. ^ Bockenheim, p. 93
  4. ^ Strybel, p. 772
  5. ^ Strybel, p. 776
  6. ^ Strybel, p. 795-801
  7. ^ Strybel, p. 565-569
  8. ^ Strybel, p. 574-580
  9. ^ Strybel, p. 180-

Sources

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